487 



K3is 



Co, 



'py i 



THE ESSENTIALS 



OF 



POULTRY RAISING 



B.F.KAUPP 




BF JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO. 
RICHMOND VIRGINIA 



«J 




Class _S£± 
Rook . \< : 
CopightN .. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE ESSENTIALS 

OF 

POULTRY RAISING 



A TEXTBOOK FOR VOCATIONAL 
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS 



BY 
B. F. KAUPP, B. S., M. S. 

•I 

Professor Poultry Science, North Carolina Agricultural Col ege 




B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO. 

RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 



<? 

.^ 



Copyright, 1920, 

By 

B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY 



All Rights Reserved. 






©CLA566488 



FOREWORD 



or 

J- 

5, — 

It is to meet the need of vocational agricultural secondary 
schools that this effort has been put forth to arrange in 
sequence those facts that the student needs in elementary poul- 
try work. It is intended that these chapters shall be given in the 
classroom at the time of the year when suitable material will 
be available for the corresponding laboratory practice periods, 
though each chapter, being complete within itself, allows the 
assignment of the chapters in any order the teacher may choose. 
Working diagrams and photographs are provided for these 
practice periods, in order that the work of the teacher may be 
lightened. 

Suggestions are made for library references for the labora- 
tory periods which should accompany each lesson, and out- 
line suggestions are given for two major projects, with two 
minor projects that dovetail together. There is also included 
a school demonstration to show that crossbreeding for two 
generations means scrubs. In addition to the twenty-two les- 
sons and the twelve laboratory exercises accompanying them, 
thirty-two additional laboratory exercises are suggested, together 
with fourteen skills. 

Under the above arrangement, it is believed that a complete 
course, so far as it goes, can be given in twenty-five periods only 
and that, by additional laboratory exercises and skills, these 
hours can be stretched to fifty or even seventy-five or a hundred 
periods, should it be the desire of the teacher to do so. Many 
of the laboratory exercises will extend over at least two periods 
if the work is completed satisfactorily : for example, the con- 
struction of the combination sitting and brooding coop. 

I wish to thank the following persons for valuable sugges- 



4 The Essentials of Poultry Revising 

tions and advice in arranging the subject matter of this book: 
the men of the Department of Vocational Education of the 
North Carolina State College of Agriculture ; the two classes 
of Farm Life School principals who studied at State College 
during the summer of 1919, and Professors L. E. Cook, W. D. 
Barbee, and O. B. Jones. 
West Raleigh, N. C. B. F. KAUPP. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter. Page. 

I. The History of Poultry and the Poultry Industry ... 9 

II. The External Structure of the Fowl 14 

III. How Poultry Is Classified 17 

IV. How to Select Birds for Breeding 27 

V. How to Select Laying Hens 34 

VI. The Necessity of Air and How to Ventilate the Poultry 

House 38 

VII. To Remodel a Poultry. House or to Make a New House . 42 

VIII. The Construction of Poultry House Equipment .... 48 

IX. Fences and Yarding Chickens 54 

X. Contagious Diseases of Poultry Appearing in Fall ... 58 

XL The Digestive Tract of the Fowl and Its Function ... 62 

XII. Poultry Feeds and Their Values 65 

XIII. Feeding Layers and Breeders 71 

XIV. Candling and Grading Market Eggs 75 

XV. Construction of the Combination Sitting and Brooding 

Coop 82 

XVI. Selecting Eggs for Hatching and Setting a Hen . . . ■ 85 

XVII. Artificial Incubating and Brooding 89 

XVIII. Feeding Chicks, Goslings, Ducklings, and Poults . . .96 

XIX. Fastening Poultry and Shipping Poultry Products . . 102 

XX. Diarrhea in Poultry 106 

XXI. Mites, Lice, Scaly Leg, and Pleas of Poultry .... no 

XXII. Worms Infesting Poultry 113 

XXIII. Poultry as an Important Enterprise on the Farm . . . 116 

XXIV. Suggestions for Projects and Laboratory Exercises . . 121 
XXV. A Few of the More Common Questions That May Be 

l T sed for Study and Review 125 

(5) 



ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS 



Figures. Page, 

i. A Bronze Turkey Hen 8 

2. A Cold Storage for Eggs and Dressed Poultry .... 12 

3. The Sections of the Male Fowl 15 

4. A Buff Plymouth Rock Cockerel and the Cup He Won . 18 

5. A Pair of Indian Runner Ducks 19 

6. A Pen of Prize-Winning Light Brahmas 20 

7. A Barred Plymouth Rock Hen ......... 21 

8. A Barred Plymouth Rock Male 22 

9. A Dark Cornish Hen 23 

10. A Two- Year-Old White Plymouth Rock Male .... 24 

it. A First Prize Winning Single-Comb Rhode Island Red 

Male Bird 25 

12. A North Carolina State Poultry Club Member's Flock of 

Single-Comb Rhode Island Reds 26 

13. A Graph Illustrating Increase in Egg Production ... 28 

14. A Utility Single-Comb White Leghorn 29 

15. A Cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, Showing Weak Vigor 30 

16. Two Years from Pure Bred to Mongrels 33 

17-18. Diagrams of an Open-Front Poultry House, Showing Cur- 
rents of Air 39-40 

19. Diagrams of a Poultry House 46-47 

20. A Grain Storage Bin 49 

21. End of a Grain Storage Bin and of a Dry Mash Hopper . 50 

22. Diagram of Nests 51 

23. The Droppings Box and Scrape 52 

24. The Digestive and Respiratory Tracts of a Fowl . . . 63 

25. A Graph Showing the Average Percentage of Eggs to 

Expect 76 

26. A Graph Showing the Fluctuation of the Price of Eggs . 77 

27. A Graph Showing Egg Production Necessary to Pay . . 78 

28. A Home-Made Candler 79 

29-30. The Combination Sitting and Brooding Coop 83-84 

31-32. An Oil-Burning Incubator 90-91 

33. A Diagram of Hover and Range House 93-94 

34. A View of an Outdoor Mash Hopper 99 




Fig. 1. A BRONZE TURKEY HEN. 

(Bred by Miss Mahaney, Maine.) 

Turkeys are raised principally for Thanksgiving and Christinas dinners. 

(8) 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

CHAPTER I 

THE HISTORY OF POULTRY AND THE 
POULTRY INDUSTRY 

' 1. The Origin of the Fowl. From biblical history we learn 
that fowls are probably as old as man himself. The modern 
fowl originated from the Gains Bankiza, which apparently was 
first observed on the Isle of Banca near Borneo. 

2. Kinds of Fowls. At the present time there are several 
hundred kinds of fowls, varying in size from the bantam, 
weighing but a few ounces, to the large Brahma, weighing 
twelve to fourteen pounds. In addition to those fowls com- 
monly called chickens, there are water fowls, such as geese 
and ducks, and turkeys, guineas, and pigeons, all of which are 
raised and kept to furnish people with food in the form of 
eggs and meat. 

3. Poultry in America. There have been developed in Amer- 
ica many breeds of fowls, such as the Rhode Island Red, 
Wyandotte, and Plymouth Rock. America is the home of the 
turkey and of the Cayuga duck. 

4. Purposes for Which Poultry Is Kept in America. In 
America there are three kinds of poultry keepers, as follows: 
first, farmers who keep small flocks for both eggs and meat; 
second, city people who keep a few hens on the back lot for 
eggs and occasionally for meat as well ; and, third, the com- 
mercial poultryman who keeps hens for the production of eggs 
for market. 

5. Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. The poultry products 
in the United States amount to over a billion dollars annually. 



io The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

6. How the Surplus Eggs Are Marketed. Eggs are sold di- 
rectly to the consumer by the producer on the town lot or the 
farm, or by the commercial poultryman. They are sold to stores 
or traded for groceries or dry goods for the family, and the 
grocer in turn sells them to the consumer or to the city com- 
mission man in case lots. The grocer also sells to hotels and 
restaurants as well as to commission men. In many com- 
munities, clubs are formed and a business agent is selected ; 
the eggs are collected at one point, graded, placed in thirty 
dozen cases, and sold to city commission men or directly to con- 
sumers' circles in the cities. 

7. Fattening Establishments for Poultry. Throughout the 
United States there are many centers where poultry fattening 
plants, with capacities of 10,000 to 50,000 fowls, receive young 
chickens, mostly cockerels, weighing from two to three pounds 
each. These young birds are fed a fattening mixture or feed 
for a period of fourteen days and are then killed, dressed, 
placed in cold storage, and sold according to grade. Many car 
lots and case lots are shipped to different points, especially to 
the large cities. In many of these establishments the birds are 
fed ground feed with buttermilk. The milk gives the birds an 
excellent flavor, and in markets like New York city such birds, 
when dressed, bring five cents per pound more than those not 
milk fed. 

8. How Fattened Poultry Is Marketed. In many of the larger 
towns there are commission merchants who buy eggs and poultry 
and ship them to the city markets. In some of these towns the 
large packing establishments, such as Armour and Company and 
Swift and Company, have buying offices. From these places 
the poultry and eggs are sent to the packing houses, where the 
eggs are stored and the fowls are fattened, slaughtered, and kept 
in coolers till times of scarcity. 

9. Storage for Dressed Poultry and Eggs. The bulk of the 
eggs are laid by the hens in the months between February and 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 11 

July, and most of the young fowls for market are raised in the 
months from April to September. Some means of preserving 
a part of this food from the season of plenty to the season of 
scarcity is essential. To meet this need, large storage build- 
ings have been constructed of brick or cement and have been 
provided with rooms that are kept at the proper temperature 
for preserving eggs or dressed poultry for several months. 

10. Eggs in Car Lots. Buyers of large quantities of eggs in 
large cities ship eggs in car lots. These cars hold 400 (or more) 
thirty-dozen cases of eggs. The cars are refrigerated, with ice 
compartments at each end of the car which are kept filled 
with ice. The cars are shipped to the large northern cities, 
such as New York and Boston. A string of cars containing 
eggs and dressed poultry is constantly going from the West to 
the East over the regular railway routes. Thus there are local 
commission merchants who buy eggs from the producer in 
dozen lots, larger city commission merchants who buy only in 
thirty-dozen case lots, and still larger dealers who buy eggs 
only in car lots. 

11. Turkey Production. In many of the middle western states 
large numbers of turkeys are raised. In some places, espe- 
cially in Texas, they are driven to market on foot. Turkeys 
are raised principally for holiday dinners, especially Thanks- 
giving and Christmas. 

12. Duck Production. In many places large numbers of ducks, 
principally of the White Pekin variety, are raised for broilers. 
This is a very profitable venture on Long Island, where over 
one and a half million ducks are raised every year for the 
Jewish trade of New York city. 

13. Capon Production. Capons are produced quite extensively 
in many sections. The soft "roasters" of the south shore of 
Massachusetts and the Philadelphia capons, produced by the 
farmers of New Jersey, have become especially well known. 

14. The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. In 1912 the 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 13 

poultry products ot the United States were greater than the 
wheat or potato crop. They were greater than the total hog 
or mule production and equal to two-thirds of the hay crop, to 
70 per cent of the value of all milk cows, and to 73 per cent 
of that of all other cattle. 

15. Poultry in Other Countries. Great Britain has been one 
of the leading countries in the production of poultry. She 
has developed many useful breeds: the Dark Cornish, the 
Orpingtons, and the Sussex. South Africa, Australia, and New 
Zealand are well advanced in poultry raising. The blood of 
many of the best breeds is traced to China. 

16. Egg Production Records. Apparently Australia holds the 
world's record for high egg production. An Orpington hen laid 
334 eggs in one year. America has produced a Single-Comb 
White Leghorn, Lady Eglantine, who laid 314 eggs in 365 days 



CHAPTER II 

THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE FOWL 

Note to Teacher : The student is to mount a feather from each part 
of the plumage of a male bird. 

17. The bird is divided into the following principal parts : 
head, neck, back, saddle, tail, wing, breast, and body. 

The head is divided into comb, face, wattles, eye, beak. The 
comb may be single comb, rose comb, v-shaped comb, or pea 
comb. The single comb has a base which attaches the comb 
to the top of the head. It is provided with a blade and small 
spikes projecting upward from the comb. Some breeds of fowls 
have five spikes, others six. The rose comb has a fleshy body 
attached to the top of the head. It has a flat top, provided 
with many small spikes projecting upward and a large spike 
projecting backward. The v-shaped comb, as the name im- 
plies, is shaped like the letter v. The pea comb consists of 
three small single combs arranged side by side, with the two 
outer combs low and the middle one slightly above the other 
two. The face is the unfeathered part at the side of the head. 
The wattles are the two flat, leaf-like structures hanging pendant 
from the under portion of the lower jaw or mandible. The eyes 
and ears are located on the side of the head in the region of 
the face. The ear lobe is a fleshy mass extending downward 
from the ear opening. It is smooth and its color is either red 
or white, according to the breed of the fowl. The beak con- 
sists of an upper part, or upper mandible, and a lower part, or 
lower mandible. 

18. The neck is divided into the neck hackle and the cape. 
The cape is the lower and outer edge of the neck hackle and 
resembles a cape, 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 




Fig. 3. THE SECTIONS OF THE MALE FOWL. 

1, beak; 2, nostril; 3, comb; 4, crest of head; 5, face; 6, eye; 7, ear; 
8, ear-lobe; 9, wattle; 10, hackle, neck; 11, front of hackle; 12, breast; 
13, cape; 14, shoulder; 15, wing bow; 16, wing front; 17, wing coverts, 
wing bar ; 18, secondaries, wing bay ; 19, primaries, flights ; 20, primary 
coverts; 21, back; 22. saddle; 23, saddle feathers; 24, sickles; 25, smaller 
sickles ; 26, tail coverts ; 27, main tail feathers ; 28, body feathers ; 29, fluff ; 
30, thigh; 31, hock; 32, shank; 33, spur; 34, ball of foot; 35, toe; 36, toe 
nail. (R. P. J.) 

19. The back is that portion between the hackle and the saddle. 

20. The saddle is located in that portion between the back and 
the tail. In the male it is provided with long flowing hackle 
feathers somewhat resembling the neck hackle. 



1 6 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

21. The tail is divided into the main tail, sickle, and covert 
feathers. The main tail feathers consist of a row of stiff large 
feathers, arranged in v-shape, just under the sickle and covert 
feathers. The sickle feathers are the large curved feathers ex- 
tending over the top of the tail. At the base of the sickle and 
main tail feathers there are smaller feathers that cover the base 
of the first two. 

22. The wing is divided into the following parts : front, bow, 
bar, secondaries, primaries, bay, and coverts. The wing bow 
is the upper and outer third of the wing when folded and looks 
like a bow. The wing bar is located just back of the wing bow 
and in some breeds makes a distinct bar. The secondaries are 
the large stiff feathers located on the part of the wing nearest 
the body, and the ten large stiff feathers on the outer end of the 
wing are the flight or primary feathers. In some birds, when 
the wing is folded, there is noted a three-cornered white space 
at the back portion of the folded wing: this is called the wing 
bay. The flight coverts are small, stiff feathers which cover 
the roots of the flight feathers. 

23. The front part of the bird below the cape or hackle is the 
breast. 

24. The sides of the bird constitute the body proper, and the 
posterior part is occupied by the cushion or vent fluff. 

25. The leg is divided into the thigh, knee, tibia or drum-stick, 
hock, shank, spur, foot, toes, and claws. The thigh is the femur 
or that region around the first bone of the leg. The knee is the 
first joint of the leg. The tibia or drum-stick is the second bone 
of the leg, sometimes incorrectly called the thigh. The hock- 
is the second joint of the leg. The shank is the unfeathered 
portion of the leg or the bone below the hock. The spur is 
located on the inner and lower third of the shank and is best 
developed in the male bird. The foot is provided with four 
toes, three extending forward and one backward. Each toe has 
a claw. 



CHAPTER III 

HOW POULTRY IS CLASSIFIED * 

Note to Teacher : The school flock and nearby pure-bred flocks should 
be visited for the purpose of studying breeds and varieties. Among the 
first things to be taught are the simple points whereby one differentiates 
between the breeds. Examples : The Wyandotte has a rose comb, while 
the Plymouth Rock has a single comb. An Orpington has a white beak 
and shanks, while the Plymouth Rock has a yellow beak and shanks. A 
Light Brahma has feathers on the shanks ; the Columbian Wyandotte has 
bare shanks. 

26. National Poultry Organization. American poultry fanciers 
have formed an association called the American Poultry Associa- 
tion. This association determines the breeds and varieties of 
fowls : which shall be recognized as pure-bred fowls and worthy 
of being called Standard Bred. 

27. American Standard of Perfection. The American Poultry 
Association publishes a book called The American Standard of 
Perfection. This publication gives the classification of all breeds 
and varieties recognized by the American Poultry Association. 

28. Classification of Poultry. In the classification of poultry 
the following terms are used : class, breed, and variety. Thus 
a Barred Plymouth Rock would be classified as follows : 

Class Breed Variety 

American Plymouth Rock Barred 

29. Class. By class is meant the country in which the breed 
was developed. Example : the Plymouth Rock was developed 



* For reference book as to details of Breeds and Varieties, see The 
American Standard of Perfection, published by the American Poultry 
Association. 

For reference to History of Breeds, see Poultry Culture Sanitation and 
Hygiene, published by W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 



1 8 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

in America, hence it is placed in the American class. The Dark 
Cornish was developed in England and therefore it is in the 
English class. 



Fig. 4. A BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK COCKEREL AND THE 

CUP HE WON. 

(Bred at North Carolina State College plant.) 

This bird is considered the best type and color. 

30. Breed. By breed is meant the type, or shape, of the bird. 
Thus we speak of the Plymouth Rock type, or the Wyandotte 
type. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



19 



31. Variety. By variety is meant the feather pattern, or type 
of comb, or both. Example : the Single-Comb Rhode Island Red 




Fig. 5. A PAIR OF INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS. 

(Bred by Patton, Charlotte, N. C.) 

These ducks are raised principally for eggs. 



20 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



and the Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red ; the White Plymouth 
Rock, or the Barred Plymouth Rock. 

32. Type and Variety. All varieties of the same breed have 
the same shape or type. 

33. Some of the Most Common Fowls. Among the most com- 
mon standard-bred fowls are the Single-Comb Rhode Island 






ifl 








M|i 


V v |?K 


if 


■^ 


fi^i 




*# 




w v \ 


V 


;a-' 


w 




%«-i ml 


"* * 










it is 






\ 


r 



Fig. 6. A PEN OF PRIZE-WINNING LIGHT BRAHMAS. 
(Bred by J. A. Pons, Asheville, N. C.) 
The Light Brahmas belong to the Asiatic class. They are chiefly 
raised for meat. 

Red, Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red, Barred Plymouth Rock, 
White Plymouth Rock, and White Wyandotte — all belonging to 
the American class. Of the English class there are the White 
Orpington, Buff Orpington, and Dark Cornish, The Single- 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



21 



Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca 
belong to the Mediterranean class. 

34. Common Varieties of Turkeys. One of the most common 
varieties of turkey is the Bronze. The male Bronze turkey at 
two years old should weigh thirty-six pounds, and the hen 
twenty pounds. 




Fig. 7. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN. 

(From Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.) 

The Plymouth Rocks belong to the general purpose or utility class of 
fowls. They are raised for both eggs and meat. 

35. Common Varieties of Geese. One of the most common 
varieties of geese is the Toulouse. The gander should weigh 
twenty-five pounds, and the goose twenty pounds. 

36. Common Varieties of Ducks. The White Pekin duck is 
raised most generally for meat. It has white feathers and a 



22 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



yellow skin. It will reach a weight of about six pounds at 
ten weeks old. The young duck raised for market is called 
a broiler duck. The adult duck should weigh eight pounds 
and the adult drake nine pounds. 
37. Indian Runner Ducks. Some varieties of ducks are kept 




Fig. 8. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE. 
(North Carolina Experiment Station.) 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



23 



for egg production alone. The Indian Runner is the best egg 
producer, often laying close to 300 eggs in a single year. The 
Indian Runner drake should weight four and one-half pounds 
at one year old, and the duck should weigh four pounds at 
one year old. 




Fig. 9. A DARK CORNISH HEN. 

(Bred by Ward, New Jersey.) 

The Cornish is raised for meat. Note the full broad breast. 



24 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 




Fig. 10. A TWO-YEAR-OLD WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE. 
(Bred by North Carolina State College.) 
This is a utility bird. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



25 




Fig. 11. A FIRST PRIZE WINNING SINGLE-COMB RHODE 
ISLAND MALE BIRD. 

The Rhode Island Reds are one of the best utility breeds. 



26 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 





■HK| ^^ ^HHHHHHfe* 




^mLTv%*B»lj^BI ,. a * ^HMI 


L ^^BKP 




*T^^ : 'WnM m 




\ 













•J "2 

ft -2 

o ^ 

U "5 eft 

O g t5 

r? to ■ ** 

^ ^ 5 
w 

Wvi 3-° 

mg 8a 

£^ £-5 

OQ n£ 

*g -I 

r/^^ ° to 

I— I U. </) 

►J S« 

v - / o a> 

X 

E ^ c 

n be ^ 

o ScS 



bo 
5 



CHAPTER IV 

HOW TO SELECT BIRDS FOR BREEDING 

Note to Teacher : The class should be taken to the school and nearby 
flocks to study constitutional vigor. As this study will come in the fall, 
the summer flocks should still be available. 

38. Purposes for Which Birds Are Kept. Birds are kept for 
egg production, meat production, utility (general purposes), or 
for ornamental purposes. 

39. Egg Production. The Single-Comb White Leghorn and 
the Single-Comb Black Minorca have been bred for high egg 
production and are among the most common breeds kept for 
the laying of eggs. The small body of the Single-Comb White 
Leghorn makes her the best and most economical egg producer. 
She will consume about ten pounds less feed for body main- 
tenance than the birds of larger breeds. By proper selec- 
tion, the larger breeds can also be bred up to very high egg 
production. 

40. The power of high egg production is transmitted by both 
the male and female birds. 

41. Meat Production. Some breeds are raised particularly for 
meat production because the quality of their meat is superior 
to that of other breeds. The Dark Cornish (Fig. 9) is one of 
the best of the meat breeds. 

42. Qualities of a Meat Fowl. A meat fowl should have a 
deep keel, well fleshed over, making a round, plump breast. The 
skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch. 

43. Utility Fowls. Utility or general-purpose fowls are raised 
for both egg production and for meat. They are especially 
recommended for the farm, where both eggs and meat are de- 
sired in fairly large quantities. The Barred Plymouth Rock, 



28 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



White Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Buff Orpington are 
among the utility breeds. 

44. Ornamental Fowls. Some fowls are raised largely because 
of their beauty. Among the ornamental fowls are the White- 




Fig. 13. A graph showing that a flock of common hens bred to com- 
mon males produced pullets which laid approximately as many eggs as 
their mothers. The mothers (1) averaged 89 eggs per hen per year and 
their daughters from the common males (2) laid an average of 92 eggs 
each. These same mothers, bred to males that were from high egg pro- 
ducing hens for many generations (4), produced pullets that laid an 
average of 135 eggs per hen per year (5). or an increase of 35 per cent. 
This was brought about by the high egg production males. Brothers of 
these pullets (6) were bred to the common pullets from the first mating 
(3), and the pullets (7) from this mating laid an average of 122 eggs 
per hen per year, or an increase of 24 per cent in Qgg production. This 
lesson tells us that high egg production is transmitted by the male to 
his daughters and that the male also transmits high egg production to 
his sons and his sons to their daughters. (North Carolina Experiment 
Station.) 

Crested Black Polish and the Japanese Bantams. The other 
Bantams are placed by some authorities among the ornamental 
fowls. 

45. Selection of the Male Bird for Breeding. The male should 
possess all the characteristics of his breed and variety and 
should have an abundance of vitality. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



29 



46. Indications of Vigor. The crow of the male should be 
strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the 
hens marked, and his comb and wattles well-developed. Red 




Fig. 14. A utility Single-Comb White Leghorn. This bird is of good 
constitutional vigor. Note well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, 
body, and the bright eye. This bird laid 223 eggs in one year. (North 
Carolina Experiment Station.) 

comb and wattles and a readiness to banter and to crow at the 
sight of a new male are indications of health. 

47. Selection of the Hen for Breeding. The hen should show 
the. characteristics of her sex, with a refinement of the head 
and body not noted in the male, 



3°> 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



48. Indications of Health and Vigor. The hen should be in- 
dustrious. She should be scratching, foraging, and singing a 
considerable part of the time. A red comb, face, and wattles, 
and a marked happiness indicate health. 




Fig. 15. A cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, showing weak constitu- 
tional vigor. This hen laid 36 eggs in one year. Note lack of develop- 
ment of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the dull eye. 
(Cornell.) 

49. Age of Breeders. Select only mature birds for breeding. 
Birds should be up to standard weight. 

50. Age for Mating. It is preferable to breed from birds that 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 3T 

are more than a year old. If pullets or cockerels must be bred 
from, it is preferable to mate the old male to pullets and the 
young m^le to hens. If pullets and cockerels must be mated 
together, they should be mature, that is, hatched early. 

51. Objects of Poultry Breeding on the Farm. The objects of 
breeding poultry on the farm are : first, to bring a flock of 
mixed breeding up to a level with the best individuals of that 
flock, and, second, to fix certain characteristics, such as large 
egg production. In breeding poultry we wish to fix the follow- 
ing characteristics : constitutional vigor, high fertility, high egg 
production, early maturity, besides other characteristics which 
the breeder may desire, such as a particular feather pattern. 

52. Lack of Constitutional Vigor. The lack of constitutional 
vigor is indicated by lack of proper development of the head, 
comb, wattles, ear lobes, and body. Such a bird is easily cowed 
by other birds. 

53. Good Constitutional Vigor. Good constitutional vigor is 
shown by a well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, and 
body. The bird stands squarely on its feet. In males, vigor is 
noted by the crow, attentiveness to the hens, and readiness to 
banter and to fight when a strange male comes around. (Com- 
pare Figs. 14 and 15.) 

54. Length of Time After Mating Fowls Before Saving Eggs 
for Hatching. If hens have not been running with male birds 
before being mated, eggs may be saved for hatching purposes 
at the end of six days. If the hens have been running with 
males before being mated, it will be necessary to wait twenty 
days before saving eggs for hatching. 

55. Selecting Turkeys for Breeding. Select turkeys of good 
size. Turkeys for breeding should be mature, of good weight, 
and of good constitutional vigor. Do not breed from birds with 
deformed backs, crooked breasts, or wrytails. 

56. Selecting Ducks for Breeding. The largest specimens 
should be selected. The drake is considered at his best the first 



32 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

two years of his life. The duck should be more than two years 
old for breeding purposes. 

57. How to Distinguish Sex of Ducks. The drake seldom 
quacks and has a harsh voice. The drakes are usually larger 
than the ducks and have a curled feather at the front and top 
part of the tail. 

58. Selecting Geese for Breeding. The gander may be used 
the first season, but the goose should not be used as a breeder 
until she is one year old. 

59. Number of Females to Mate to Each Male. Among the 
larger breeds of fowls ten to twelve hens may be mated to one 
male. Young males will take more females than old males. In 
the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, twelve to fifteen females 
may be given each male. One male turkey may be mated to as 
many as fifteen females. One gander may be mated to two or 
three geese. One drake may be mated to four or five ducks. 

60. Results of Crossbreeding. Do not crossbreed, as the sec- 
ond generation will be scrubs. Scrubs do not produce eggs that 
are uniform in shape, color, and size, and the birds are never 
uniform in color or size. If a product is not of the best quality, 
the producer will not receive the highest market price for it. 
Study Fig. 16 for results of crossbreeding. 

The first year a Single-Comb White Leghorn was mated with 
Light Brahma females and the progeny were uniform. The 
second year these birds were mated together and the progeny 
of this second breeding were nothing but scrubs, producing eggs 
and birds of different shapes and sizes. This always happens. 
Never crossbreed. Always breed pure-bred poultry ; then your 
product will be uniform and you will receive the best prices. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 33 

Fig. 16. TWO YEARS FROM PURE BRED TO MONGRELS. 




S. C. W. Leghorn. The First Cross. 



Light Brahma. 




Result First Cross (P Generation). 




Result F 1 Generation Cross (F 2 Generation). 



CHAPTER V 



HOW TO SELECT LAYING HENS 



Note to Teacher : The class should be taken to the school and nearby 
docks to practise taking measurements and for observation of the other 
characteristics indicating good and poor layers. Allowance must also be 
made for fingerbreadths, as the standard fingerbreadth is based on the 
fingers of the average-sized man. 

61. When to Cull Hens. Hens should be culled each year in 
July or August, or as soon thereafter as possible. 

62. Physical Condition of Laying Hens. In order that a hen 
may lay well, she must have a sound body. The bird must be 
vigorous and healthy. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, 
clear eye, an active disposition, and a well-developed body. 

63. Physical Condition of Poor Laying Hens. £oor laying 
hens are shy, while good layers are tame and easily handled. 
A poor laying hen goes to perch early. Her toe nails are long, 
indicating that she has not been scratching like the good layer. 
The poor layer usually is the last bird to leave the perch in the 
morning. 

64. Physical Defects. Laying hens should be free from such 
physical defects as a crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, 
eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly legs, 
or anything that would tend to keep the bird from getting an 
abundance of feed. 

65. In the yellow-skinned birds, such as the Leghorn, Ply- 
mouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte, the yellow 
color fades out as laying goes on. Skin tests cannot be carried 
on in birds with a white skin. 

66. Bleaching of Beak and Shanks. In Leghorns the beak will 
be entirely bleached by the time the bird has laid thirty eggs. 
The shanks will be bleached out by the time the bird has laid 
sixty eggs. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 3^ 

67. Conditions of Vent The vent of a laying hen is soft, 
flabby, large, moist, and white. In a non-laying hen the vent is 
hard, dry, small, and yellow. 

68. Body Changes Due to Laying. As a hen comes into lay- 
ing, the ovary, in which the yolk of the 'egg is formed, becomes 
very much enlarged. The oviduct, where the albumin or white 
of the egg is formed and where the shell is manufactured, like- 
wise grows much larger. The intestines increase 30 to 40 per 
cent in length and bulk. All these increases in the bulk of the 
abdominal organs make changes in the bony relations necessary. 
The breast bone is drawn downward and its lateral processes 
are pushed downward and outward. The pelvic arches are 
widened. 

69. Measurements. The distance between the posterior end of 
the breast bone and the laybones, or pubic bones, in a heavy 
laying hen is four or more fingers in breadth. If the measure- 
ment just referred to is four fingers in breadth, it indicates that 
the hen will, in all probability, lay over two hundred eggs and 
should be kept for a breeder. Allowance must be made for 
hens large in body, as the above measurements are estimates on 
White Leghorns. In a hen measuring four fingers in breadth 
between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones 
(pubic bones), the distance between the laybones, or pubic 
bones, will probably be three fingers in breadth. The measure- 
ment between the posterior end of the breast bone and the lay- 
bones is called capacity. The distance between the laybones is 
called pubic span. 

70. Hens to Discard. Discard as layers all birds that measure 
less than three fingerbreadths in capacity and less than two 
fingerbreadths in pubic span. 

71. Upward Tendency in Egg Production. Later, as more 
birds of the flock measure four fingers in breadth in capacity and 
three fingers in breadth in pubic span, discard all that do not 
measure more than three fingerbreadths in capacity and two 
fingerbreadths in pubic span, 



36 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

» 

72. External Sex Characteristics. The comb and wattles are 
sex organs. 

73. Changes in External Sex Organs in Laying and in Non- 
Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, her comb grows 
congested, red, oily, very flexible, pliable, and soft. The wattles 
undergo similar changes. As the hen goes out of laying con- 
dition, the comb again shrinks, becomes dry, hard, covered with 
white scales, and stiff. On the day of laying, the comb will 
be hot to the touch. 

74. The Abdomen of a Non-Laying Hen. In non-laying hens, 
the fat accumulates in the abdominal wall and the wall becomes 
hard to the touch. 

75. The Abdomen in Laying Hens. As a hen comes into 
laying, the abdomen becomes soft and the skin velvety in tex- 
ture. 

76. Laying as a Pullet an Indication of Laying Qualities. The 
good laying hen begins to lay early as a pullet. Very heavy 
producers in the Leghorn breed will begin to lay at about five 
months of age. The poor layers begin very late, many of them 
not commencing until spring. 

77. Molting as an Indication of Egg Production. Heavy layers 
do not go into full molt till late in the fall. Low producers will 
quit laying early, many of them as early as July and August— 
in fact, the latter part of June — and go into full molt. 

78. Heavy Laying Hens Undergo Vacational Molt. A vaca- 
tional molter casts a few feathers, during which time of molt- 
ing she does not lay. She then begins laying, and growing 
feathers. After a few days she again stops laying for a few 
days, during which time she casts more feathers. She keeps up 
this process for a space of twenty-four weeks, undergoing a 
complete molt, and at the same time continues laying, though 
not so frequently as before she began her vacation. 

79. Wing Molting. The wing molting is very characteristic 
in the vacational molters, There are ten primary feathers. Be- 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 37 

tween the primary feathers and the secondary feathers is a 
short feather called the axillary feather. The first primary 
feather to molt is the feather next to the axillary feather. It 
takes six weeks to molt this feather and grow it again. Two 
additional weeks must be allowed for the molting and growing 
of each of the other primary feathers, making twenty-four weeks 
in all. When one feather is cast in one wing, it is noted that 
the corresponding feather in the other wing is also cast. 

80. Culls in the Flock. In unculled flocks, where breeding for 
high tgg production has not been carried on, there will be at 
least 35 per cent of unprofitable fowls to be eliminated from 
the flock. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE NECESSITY OF AIR AND HOW TO VENTILATE 
THE POULTRY HOUSE 

Note to Teacher : Visit a properly ventilated house and one not 
properly ventilated. 

81. Oxygen of the Air. Air contains an element called oxygen. 
Oxygen is essential, for if air is withheld from the bird for a 
very few moments it will die. 

82. How the Bird Obtains Oxygen. The bird obtains oxygen 
by breathing air into the lungs. The air passes through the 
nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, and into the bladder-like 
structures extending from the lungs, called air sacs. 

83. How the Oxygen Is Taken Up. The lungs and air sacs 
are lined with minute blood vessels in which blood circulates 
and takes up the oxygen from the air, carrying it to the tissues 
of the body where it is needed to maintain life. 

84. Carbon Dioxide from the Body, In the performance of 
the vital processes within the body of the fowl, there is formed 
a poisonous gas called carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide 
must be got rid of or the bird will die. 

85. How Carbon Dioxide Is Got Rid Of. The blood absorbs 
the carbon dioxide and carries it to the lungs, where it is given 
off to the air. Thus the breathing in of air furnishes oxygen 
and the breathing out of air eliminates the carbon dioxide. 

86. Ventilation Required in Poultry Houses. Poultry houses 
must be properly ventilated, so that a fresh supply of air will 
be always present and sunshine can find its way into the house. 

87. Methods of Ventilation. There are two methods of venti- 
lation : ventilation by diffusion and ventilation by draft. 

88. Ventilation by Diffusion. Fig. \7 shows an open-front 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



39 



house with no ventilator in the back. In this type of house the 
air passes in at the lower part of the open front and gradually 
diffuses back to the birds on the perch poles. The air surround- 
ing the birds is warmer than that in the front of the building, 
and the heated, polluted air passes upward and out of the house 
at the upper part of the open front. 




Fig. 17. A diagram of an open-front poultry house for Southern cli- 
mates with no ventilator in the back. This illustrates ventilation by diffu- 
sion. The air passes in at the lowest point of the open front, gradually 
diffuses back over the birds, then passes upward as it becomes warmed 
and finally exudes through the upper part of the open front. 

89. How to Make Houses Cool in the Summer Time. Straw 

lofts absorb the heat from the roof and make the houses cooler 
The straw loft is made by tacking a two-inch mesh chicken 
netting to the under side of the rafters and packing the four-inch 
space thus made with straw. This will make the house venti- 
lated by diffusion much cooler. It is best to provide a ventilator 



40 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



in the back of the house and keep it open in the summer time 
and closed in the winter. 

90. Ventilation by Draft. Fig. 18 shows a cross section of a 
house built for a cold climate. It is provided with a ventilator 
at the back and an open front. The air passes in one opening 
and through the house and out of the opposite opening. The 
front opening is provided with a drop curtain, which consists 
ot a wood frame covered with muslin. In the summer time 
this curtain is kept up, as shown in the picture, and in the 
winter time it is closed down. The fronts of such houses are 




Fig. 18. Diagram showing currents of air through a poultry house. 
The air enters at a, passes under the droppings boards at b and g, but no 
draft strikes, the birds on the roost at /. The air passes through the 
house, as indicated by the arrows, and out at c. For cold climates it is 
desirable to have a front drop curtain immediately in front of the birds 
and at the front of the house, as indicated in the drawing. The curtain 
material must allow of the passage of air through it. (From Poultry 
Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.) 

also furnished with one or more windows to provide light when 
the drop curtain is down. It will also be noted that the house 
is sealed as far up as the front of the dropping boards. A cur- 
tain is provided at the front of the droppings boards which, as 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 41 

in the case of the curtain at the front opening, is raised during 
summer and let down during winter nights to keep the hens 
warm. Ceiled roofs or straw lofts are necessary in the poultry 
houses of cold climates, to prevent "sweating" of the walls of 
the house. 



CHAPTER VII 

TO REMODEL A POULTRY HOUSE OR TO MAKE 
A NEW HOUSE 

Note to Teacher: Have class remodel or construct a house. 

91. To Remodel a Poultry House. It is often necessary to 
remodel another building to make a poultry house. Repair the 
roof so that it will not leak when it rains. The sides and back 
should be stripped with slats, that there may be no cracks 
through which a draft will pass to the birds. A ventilator 
should be cut in the back as high above the perch pole as pos- 
sible. This will prevent a draft directly upon the birds. The 
front must face the south. Make an opening as illustrated in 
Fig. 19. The opening should extend the whole length of the 
house and be three feet wide. The lower edge of this opening 
should be thirty inches above the ground. Cover this opening 
with one-inch mesh chicken netting. If the building has a board 
floor and is raised above the ground so that there is no harbor 
for rats underneath, it may be well simply to repair the floor and 
make it tight. If the building has a dirt floor, fill it in with 
clay, gravel, or cinders until the inside level of the floor is 
above the surrounding ground, so that the floor will remain 
dry during rainy and snowy seasons. The ground should slope 
from the house, in order that the water may drain away from 
the building. 

92. Construction of a New Poultry House. The plan of con- 
struction of the small colony house here presented provides for 
two perch poles eight feet long, which will accommodate twenty- 
five birds. Twice this number can be provided for where the 
birds run outdoors all the year round. If the climate is cold, 
a window should be provided and twenty-five birds should be 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 43 

the limit for the winter months. The floor may be of concrete, 
cinders or gravel, dirt, or boards. If it is concrete, there should 
be eight inches of crushed rock or cinders well tamped in with 
two inches of cement surface. The top inch should be made of 
one part cement to two parts sifted sand and the balance of 
six parts of coarse rock and sand to one part of cement. Bolts 
should be imbedded in the cement foundation so that the sills 
may be bolted down. The top of the foundation should slope 
about one inch to the front. If the floor is of cinders or gravel, 
it should be four to six inches deep and thoroughly tamped. 
With the gravel or cinder floor, the sills furnish a harbor for 
rats that cannot be prevented. If the floor is of dirt, it should 
be filled in four to six inches above the surrounding ground 
so as to ensure dryness during wet seasons. If the floor is con- 
structed of boards, flooring should be used. The floor should 
be twelve to eighteen inches above the ground. In winter the 
space under the house should be boxed in. 

The sides, back, and front walls may be constructed of plain 
sheathing boards, nailed on perpendicularly, and these boards 
should be covered with heavy tar paper, or a good grade of 
boxing boards, planed on one side and battened, may be used. 
Weather boarding is sometimes used. The most satisfactory 
walls are made from pieces of four-inch flooring driven tightly 
together. The roof should be covered with sheathing laid closely 
together. The surface of the sheathing may be covered with 
metal shingles, wood shingles, or prepared roofing. The house 
should be painted. 

Where it is desired to keep the cost down, the framing ma- 
terial may be secured from the forest and hewn out, and the 
studdings may be set in the ground. The sills, being nailed 
to the studding set in the ground, will be above the surface of 
the floor and thus harbors for rats will be avoided. 

The front of the house is eight feet high and the back six 
feet. The front opening is three feet wide, which allows an 



44 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

abundance of sunshine to enter the house. Plenty of sunshine 
in the house ensures a dry house and healthful conditions for 
the birds. 

The water rack is eighteen inches high, an elevation that pre- 
vents the birds from scratching litter into the water, and thereby 
contaminating it. 

The front opening is thirty inches from the floor. The drop- 
pings board is arranged horizontally and is thirty inches above 
the floor. 

The perch pole is eight inches above the droppings board. It 
is made of lumber, two inches by four, with corners planed off 
and laid flatwise. The perch pole should fit loosely into notches 
in its supports so as to be removable in case of mites. 

The nests should be at least eighteen inches from the floor. 

93. Capacity of Perch Poles. Two feet of perch pole space 
should be allowed for each three hens. 

94. Size of Nests. For small breeds, such as Leghorns, the 
nests should be fourteen inches square. For medium-sized birds, 
such as Rhode Island Reds, the nests should be fifteen inches 
square. For the large breeds, such as the Brahmas, the nests 
should be sixteen inches square. 

95. Floor Space. Where birds are kept indoors two or three 
months or more, as they are in cold climates, four square feet 
of space per bird should be provided. Where birds run out the 
entire year, as in warm climates, less floor space is required. 

96. Poultry House Equipment (see Chapter VIII). The fol- 
lowing is a list of materials for the house: 

Front corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 16 feet long. 

Sills, 4 pieces, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

Back corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

Rafters, 6 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long. 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

Cross pieces for front opening, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

For broody coop, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

Perch poles, dressed all sides, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long. 

Supports for droppings board, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 45 

Perch support, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 8 feet long. 

Lattice for broody coop, and water platform, 2 pieces, 1x2 inches, 8 
feet long. 

Flooring for front, 4 pieces, 4 inches wide and 16 feet long. 

Flooring for front, 9 pieces, 4 inches wide and 10 feet long. 

Flooring for ends, 41 pieces, 4 inches wide and 14 feet long. 

Flooring for back, 22 pieces, 4 inches wide and 12 feet long. 

Flooring for droppings boards, 8 pieces, 4 inches wide, 12 feet long. 

Battens for droppings boards and door, 4 pieces, 1x4 inches, 12 feet 
long. 

For roof, No. 3 sheathing, 196 feet. 

Hardware : 

Hinges for door, roosts, 3 pairs. 

Chain to raise roost poles, 2 feet. 

Good prepared roofing, 196 square feet. 

Wire netting for front and sides of broody coop, 3 yards, one- inch 
mesh, 24 inches wide. 

Wiref or front of house, 3y 2 yards, one-inch mesh, 36 inches wide. 

97. Construction Notes. The front and the rear corner posts 
are four by four inches. The rafters are two by four inches 
and are placed two feet apart. There is a projection of the 
roof, one foot back, front, and sides. The front elevation of 
Fig. 19 shows the open front. The front opening is covered 
with one-inch chicken netting. For cold climates part of this 
opening is provided with a window and the open part with a 
drop curtain (90), The house should face the south. The front 
elevation shows a hole, twelve inches square, to allow the hens 
to pass out and in. This is guarded by a door which can be 
shut at night to keep the rats out, thus preventing them from 
consuming mash. It also keeps out minks, skunks, opossums, 
and other enemies of poultry. The nests are placed just below 
the droppings board, or along the side wall. The first perch 
pole should be fourteen inches from the back wall of the house 
and the perch poles should be twelve inches apart and fourteen 
inches from the front edge of the droppings board. The drop- 
pings board is made in eighteen-inch sections, so that it may 
be removed for cleaning and disinfecting. The water rack is 
eighteen inches square. It is constructed of two-inch strips laid 
two inches apart and supported by two by four-inch braces, 



4 6 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 




K- 



/?/£>)* /-/and End £/eva*io7t 
12' 



-H 







































r 


foojr 




CI 

o 








oAo/ 


>>' 


v« 


h 


** 















r 






































9' i 




a. 

i 




7 M 












Yfttty 




1 

16 


m — .X* — p 




1 1 IT 




II II 




















l 


II II 















12' 



floor* P/an 

Fig. 19. A suitable poultry house for 25 to 50 birds. The front eleva- 
tion indicates the position of the ventilator in the back, the position of 
the nests, a perch pole, the front opening for the hens, and the open 
front. The front is 12 feet wide and 8 feet high. The left-hand eleva- 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



47 




Left Hand End £ I ovation 



3' 



A/ests 




Front Elevation 

tion shows the position of the mash hopper, broody coop, and end view 
of the nests, dropping board, and perch poles. The right-hand elevation 
shows the location of the water rack, door, storage bin for feed, nests, 
dropping board, and perch poles. The front of the building is 8 feet 
high and the back 6 feet. It also shows the four-inch footing extending 
into the ground. The floor plan shows the location of the mash hopper 
and grain storage bin, out of danger of getting wet, and the location of 
the dropping board and water rack. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSE 
EQUIPMENT 

Note to Teacher : Have class construct poultry house equipment. 

98. The Poultry House Equipment. The poultry house equip- 
ment consists of a grain storage bin, holding one hundred 
pounds, for the grain feed commonly called scratch feed; a 
mash hopper, holding one hundred pounds, for the dry mash 
which is to be kept before fowls at all times ; the nests, fur- 
nishing one nest for each four hens ; a droppings board box and 
scrape ; a water pan for water and milk ; a record board and 
record sheets for keeping the flock record ; litter for the floor 
in the form of shredded corn stover, straw, or leaves ; litter, 
such as straw or excelsior, for the nests. 

99. Construction of the Grain Storage Bin. The following 
list of material is needed to construct one grain storage bin : 

2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long. 
1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 12 feet long. 
1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long. 
y 2 pound 8d. nails. 

100. Construction Notes. The back of the bin is thirty-two 
inches high and the front eighteen inches high. The bin is 
twelve inches w r ide and four feet long, with a partition in the 
center dividing it into two chambers. The steep angle of the 
top prevents the birds from roosting on it. 

101. Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The follow- 
ing list of materials is needed to construct one indoor mash 
hopper: 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 49 

2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long. 

2 boards, 1 inch by 8 inches, 16 feet long. 

1 board, 1 inch by 4 inches, 16 feet long. 

1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 4 feet long (for ends). 

1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long (for top lid). 

1 pair butt hinges, 2 inches wide (for lid at feed opening). 

6 J4-inch rods, 6 inches long (for divisions of feed opening). 

102. Notes on Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The 
ends are made of one twelve and one six-inch board. The six- 
inch board is placed at the back so that the joint does not come 
too near the front. The back of the hopper is thirty-two inches 




Fig. 20. A. — A grain storage bin four feet long. The front eighteen 
inches high. The end twelve inches wide, cut to an angle for the top. 
The top lid open, showing the middle partition and the two compartments. 
B. — The dry mash hopper with lids open. (1) The strip preventing wast- 
ing of mash, just above which can be seen the iron rods. 

high. It is made of two twelve and one eight-inch boards. The 
bottom is twenty inches wide and is likewise constructed of one 
twelve-inch and one eight-inch board. The eight-inch board is 
placed at the back so that the angle board covers the joint at 
the bottom. An eight-inch board is placed in the angle at the 
back and bottom so that the mash will readily feed down. The 
front board, which is placed at an angle, extends to within four 
inches of the bottom or floor. This prevents the too rapid feed- 
ing of the mash. A two-inch strip is placed on the front of the 



5° 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



hopper opening and extends over the opening about one inch, 
to prevent the birds throwing the mash out with their beaks. 
The feed opening is four inches wide and extends the entire 
length of the hopper. A lid is provided for this opening and 
is hinged at the back edge and provided at the end with a hook 
and eye, so that it may be left up for the birds to secure the 
mash, or it may be put down to keep rats out, in case the hens 
require mash only part of the time. One-fourth-inch iron bars 
are placed across the feed opening so that the birds cannot get 
their feet into the mash. At the end there are three compart- 





Fig. 21. A, the end of a grain storage bin. B, the end of a dry mash 
hopper. 



ments formed by three partitions, which extend to the top. 
These are for grit, shell, and charcoal. The larger compart- 
ment will hold one hundred pounds of dry mash. The top is 
constructed at a steep slant so that the birds cannot roost upon 
the top of the hopper. The opening into the top of the hopper 
is twelve inches wide. 

103. Construction of the Nests. The following list of ma- 
terials is sufficient for the construction of six nests : 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



51 



1 board, 1 inch by 14 inches, 8 feet long (for partitions). 

1 board, 1 inch by 8 inches, 7 feet long (for door). 

8 boards, 1 inch by 4 inches, 7 feet long (for bottom, front, back, and 
run board or step). 

2 boards, 1 inch by 2 inches, 7 feet long (to nail netting to). 
2 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long. 

1 piece netting, 24 inches wide and 7 feet long. 

Y\ pound 8d. wire nails. 

l /i pound chicken netting staples. 

104. Notes on Construction of the Nests. The nests are con- 
structed with the inside compartments fourteen inches square. 
The top and bottom are provided with a strip two inches wide 




-/f- 



7o/o V/ew 



7- 



~f 



xr 



irf 



7' 



fcfc 



8 



.•^: 



, <£» 



?g; 1 



£nd v/€VV 



f/ew 



Fig. 22. The nests. The top view shows the wire netting and run 
1>oard. The front view shows the hinged door. The end view, showing 
the end of the run, entrance opening, door, top, and bottom. 



extending- around the outer border, to which one-fourth-inch 
mesh wire netting is stapled. The front opening is covered with 
a board eight inches wide and is hinged at the bottom and hooked 
above, so that by letting it down the nests may be got at. The 
bottom strip to which this is hinged is four inches wide, and 
there is a strip along the top border two inches wide, to which 
the door is hooked. There is a strip, four inches wide in the 
back and at the lower portion of the nests, which retains the 



52 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



nesting material. A run board or step, four inches wide and 
extending along the entire length, furnishes a step for the birds 
to hop upon when entering the nests. This strip is held in 
position by a cleat and a space two inches wide is provided 
between the step and the nests. The partitions are located 
fourteen inches apart (Fig. 22). 

105. The Construction of the Droppings Box. The droppings 
box is sixteen inches wide, twenty-four inches long, and eleven 



8" 



w 

I 



f 



I 



24-"- 

SiJe v/ew 



^16 



L 



EnJ WCVV 



*£>'* 




Scrape 



^ 



^ 



1 

18" 



l*-3#M 



Fig. 23. The droppings box and scrape, showing side and end views 
of the box, and top and front views of the scrape. 



inches deep. It is provided with a handle. The handle is made 
from two pieces, one inch by two inches, bolted to the sides of 
the box, and a piece of a broom handle held in position at the 
top by boring two holes in the top part of the upright pieces. 
The box should be constructed of some light wood such as white 
pine or cottonwood and should be of thin material (Fig. 23). 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 53 

106. Making the Scrape. The cross piece or body of the 
scrape is made of one-inch by four-inch material, cut to a feather 
edge at the lower part of the blade of the scrape. To the body 
of the scrape, a handle about thirty inches long is nailed. The 
scrape part should be eighteen inches long (Fig. 23). 



CHAPTER IX 
FENCES AND YARDING CHICKENS 

Note to Teacher : Visit farm showing fencing material in use. 

107. Kinds of Posts. The kinds of posts used for fencing are 
wood, steel, and cement. 

108. Kinds of Wood Posts. Wood posts are round, split, or 
sawn. Round wood posts are made from small trees or from 
the tops of larger trees. Round posts should be peeled. Split 
posts contain more heart wood than round posts and will last 
much longer. Sawn posts contain more of the heart wood than 
either of the other two. They are saw r n five inches square. 
Heart wood lasts longer than the outer portions. 

109. Durable Wood Posts. Certain woods last longer than 
others. Among these more durable woods are hedge, white oak, 
cedar, and elm. 

110. Posts Not Durable. Among the posts that are not so 
durable may be mentioned hickory, black oak, and pine. 

111. How to Make Posts Durable. If the posts are round or 
split, peel off the bark. This can be done with a draw knife. 
Soak with creosote the part that goes into the ground and twelve 
inches above the ground line. Such woods as pine and hickory 
can be made to last for more than ten years by this treatment. 

112. Steel Posts. Steel posts are the most durable, but are 
quite expensive. The end posts and the corner posts are set in 
a block of cement eighteen inches wide and two feet long. The 
end posts have a steel brace* which is likewise set in cement, 
and the corner posts have two braces, both of them set in 
cement. The wire is stretched tightly from one end post to the 
other and held by line posts. The line posts are driven about 
eighteen inches into the ground and are used to hold the fence 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 55 

in position. Only a heavy wire fence is used with steel posts. 

113. Cement Posts. Cement posts are made in molds and con- 
sist of one part cement to two parts of finely sifted sand. The 
posts are made eight feet long, so that they may be set three 
feet in the ground, leaving five feet above ground. 

114. Reinforced Cement Posts. Reinforced cement posts are 
made by placing wire or old strips of iron in the center of the 
post as the cement is poured. This strengthens the post. Cement 
posts not reinforced will break easily. Reinforced cement po§ts 
seldom break and will last a lifetime. Cement posts are made 
eight feet long. 

115. Three Kinds of Wire Fencing Material for Chicken 
Fences. These are the six-sided mesh, a light wire, the three- 
sided mesh wire, slightly heavier than the six-sided mesh wire, 
and the heavy poultry wire. 

116. The Six-Sided Wire Fencing. The six-sided light wire 
fencing material is the most commonly used, but is the least 
durable of the three kinds. There are different sizes of meshes, 
namely : three-fourths inch, one-inch, and two-inch mesh. It is 
difficult to stretch this wire and make a neat, lasting fence. It 
is likely to sag at the top and not fit tightly at the bottom. The 
bottom can be made to fit tightly on the ground by using stakes 
made from one-inch by two-inch sticks, twelve inches long, with 
a nail driven through the top in such a way that, in driving the 
stake down, the nail will catch the lower strand of wire and 
hold it close to the ground. A barbed wire can be stretched 
along the top and the top strand of wire lashed to this barbed 
wire, either with pieces of baling wire or with hog rings. A 
board panel made by using a one-inch by four-inch strip, both 
at the ground and at the top, to which the wire can be nailed, 
makes a fence of better appearance. 

117. The Three-Sided Wire Fencing. Recently there has been 
placed on the market a wire netting of two-inch mesh and of 
heavier wire. This netting can be stretched in the same manner 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



as the six-sided mesh netting. It is somewhat more satisfactory 
than the six-sided mesh netting. 

118. The Heavy Poultry Wire. More recently there has been 
put on the market a heavier fence, made from a wire similar to 
that used as fencing material for hogs and cattle. The meshes 
are rectangular. The spaces next to the ground are one and 
one-fourth inches, that is, the lower wires are one and one- 
fourth inches apart ; the spaces gradually widen as the top is 
approached. The top wires are only six inches apart. This 
fencing can be used w T ith w r ood, cement, or steel posts. It is 
generally used with steel posts. With steel posts, such fencing 
is quite expensive, but steel posts are the cheapest in the long 
run, as they will last much longer than any of the other kinds. 

119. How to Set Posts. It is best to set posts from thirty 
inches to three feet in the ground. Fill in the ground gradually, 
tamping the dirt thoroughly from the bottom of the hole to the 
surface of the ground. If too much dirt is filled in before it is 
thoroughly tamped, the bottom of the post will not be held 
firmly and will soon become loose. 

120. Bracing Posts. All end posts must be braced from the 
wire side and all corner posts must be braced in two ways. 

121. Standard Height of Poultry Fences. The standard height 
of poultry fences is five feet, or sixty inches. 

122. Fencing Poultry on the Farm. On the farm, the garden 
and not the poultry should be fenced. Fowls should be allowed 
the run of the farm, as they will forage in the summer for much 
of their feed in the form of waste about the barn and fields. 
They will consume bugs and insects, which make excellent 
animal food for them ; while by consuming bugs and insects, 
they protect the crops against these pests. Poultry running 
over the farm deposits droppings, which aid in fertilizing the 
ground. 

123. Fencing Poultry on the Town Lot. If poultry is kept 
on a town lot, it may be advisable to fence this in to prevent the 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 57 

fowls from annoying neighbors. When birds are shut up in a 
pen, it is necessary to compensate them for the loss of insects 
and green feed which they would secure on the range. The lot 
should be divided into two parts, one being sown in rape, cow 
peas, or oats, depending on the season, while the flock should 
be kept in the other part. By this means, green feed may be 
provided the year around. 



CHAPTER X 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY APPEARING 

IN FALL 



Note to Teacher : Bring into the classroom a bird with one of these 
diseases. 

124. Roup, sorehead, swollen eyes, and diphtheria most often 
occur in the fall. 

125. Cause of Roup. Roup is caused by a germ. A germ or 
bacterium is a vegetable organism so small that it must be mag- 
nified one thousand times by the microscope in order to be 
visible. Roup affects the nose and nasal passages of the head. 

126. How Roup Is Spread, The germs of roup may live in 
the yards and hen houses from one fall or winter to the next. 
The disease may be spread by a chronic carrier, that is, a bird 
that has had it and has apparently recovered but that still 
gives off the germs. Such a bird will sit around on the perch 
much of the time. It has a pale face, dried down, hard, stiff 
comb, and is light in weight. It will be observed occasionally 
to sneeze ; and if examined closely, a small amount of dried 
scab around the nostril will be seen, besides a very thin dis- 
charge, scarcely observable and of an offensive odor. Such a 
bird should be killed and its head and body burned, as it con- 
stantly deposits this discharge, containing the germs of the 
disease, in eating and drinking. As soon as the weather con- 
ditions are such as to favor the development of roup, the disease 
again breaks out. Roup may be spread by introducing a sick 
bird into the flock, or by shipping a bird in a coop in which 
a roupy bird has been kept, or by placing birds in runs or houses 
where birds sick of roup have been kept. 

127. How You Can Tell Roup. A bird may have a light or 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 59 

a severe attack of roup. If the attack is light, there will first 
be noticed a slight discharge at the nose, the bird will be dull, 
and will not appear to feel well. It does not leave the perch 
and house as soon in the morning as usual and does not scratch 
for food as usual. The feathers may appear rather rough. In 
severe cases great depression will be noticed in the bird. The 
discharge from the nostrils is great and of a very offensive odor. 
An accumulation of this matter may clog the cavities of the 
head, when a lump below the eye will be observed. The bird 
will appear weak, wall not eat, stands around in a tucked-up 
posture, rapidly becomes poor in flesh, and soon dies. 

128. Treatment of a Bird With Roup. A bird with roup should 
immediately be removed from the flock. If the disease is of a 
severe type and you think the bird is sure to die, immediately 
kill it and bury or burn the head and body to prevent the spread 
of the disease. If you think it will get well, you may treat it. 
If the trouble proves to be only a common cold, one treatment 
may effect a cure. Have an assistant hold the bird with the 
head down. Use a small one or two-dram hard rubber syringe 
which has the nozzle filed down so that you can insert it into 
the bird's nose. Inject through the nasal passage a warm solu- 
tion of common baking soda. Use one-half teaspoonful of 
common baking soda to half a cup of warm water. This will 
cut the accumulation and leave the inflamed mucous lining clean, 
so that a drug can now be applied that will relieve the inflam- 
mation. Inject a small quantity of the following mixture through 
the nasal passage : 

Oil thyme ..._ 30 drops 

Oil eucalyptus 30 drops 

Menthol 10 drops 

Oil petrol 2 ounces 

Repeat this treatment twice a day. 

By holding the bird with head down, the material forced 
through the nasal passage will not get into the windpipe. The 



60 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

strong hard rubber syringe will drive the material clear through 
the nasal passage and out into the mouth through the slit in 
the upper part of the mouth. If the bird's head is held down, 
this material will run out of the mouth and not infect the wind- 
pipe (trachea) and thus cause complications. Always wash the 
hands in a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal tar 
disinfectant dip before handling other birds. 

129. How to Prevent Spread of Roup. Thoroughly clean the 
yard and house. Spray the house thoroughly with a 4 per cent 
solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Such 
a dip can be secured at any drug store and should have a 
coefiiciency of at least 5 per cent. Put permanganate of potash 
in the drinking water. Get a fruit jar and fill it with water. 
Place in this water crystals of permanganate of potash until 
some of it is left in the bottom undissolved. When the drink- 
ing water is prepared for the flock, pour in enough of this stock 
solution of permanganate of potash to make the water slightly 
purple. Always promptly remove all birds with roup from the 
rest of the flock and look out for the chronic carrier. 

130. Swollen Eyes. Usually but a single eve is found to be 
swollen at a time. The germs of roup arc responsible for one 
kind of swollen eyes. In this kind, the lining of the eye will 
be noticed to be red or inflamed. There will be an accumula- 
tion of a white, clot-like matter. When the bird sleeps at night, 
a small amount of this material dries along the outer edge of 
the eyeball, with the result that the bird cannot open its eye 
in the morning. The material continues to accumulate and the 
eye becomes enormously swollen. 

131. How to Treat Swollen Eyes. Gently press open the eye- 
lids with the thumb and finger. Remove with a small pledget 
of cotton this white, clot-like mass and inject a small quantity 
of soda solution, as in the case of roup (128). Then inject a 
small quantity of the oil, as in roup. Repeat this treatment 
twice a day. A 10 per cent solution of argyrol or a 1 per cent 
solution of zinc sulphate may be used. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 61 

132. Diphtheria or Avian Diphtheria. This is the mouth type 
of roup. When roup occurs among birds, each bird should be 
caught and its mouth opened to see if there are any sores 
within. These sores may cover quite a surface and are accom- 
panied by a gummy, cheesy material. In such a case the bird 
shows symptoms much like those described above in nasal 
roup (128). It cannot eat, and these sores may extend down 
into the throat. With a dull knife, scrape all the material off 
and burn the surface with a stick of nitrate of silver till all the 
parts are white. Repeat this treatment in a few days if the 
sores do not disappear. 

133. How to Tell Sorehead. The first sign of sorehead is a 
depressed condition of the bird. It does not appear as lively 
as usual, and small pimples appear on the comb, face, or wattles. 
These are hard and red and gradually become larger. If the 
disease is a severe one, the top becomes sore, and these sores 
spread over much of the unfeathered part of the head. Some- 
times the disease is very light, causing only one or two small 
pimples or sores on the comb or wattles and not depressing the 
bird very greatly. The disease may be spread by mosquitoes 
or it may be spread like roup (126). 

134. How to Treat Sorehead. Take the same steps as in 
roup (128). Apply some of the oil preparation as used in roup 
and sore head (128) and repeat in about three days. Two 
applications often result in a cure. The pimples and sores may 
be touched with tincture of iodine or burnt with a stick of 
nitrate of silven 



CHAPTER XI 

THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF THE FOWL AND ITS 

FUNCTION 

Note to Teacher : Hold postmortem and demonstrate all parts of the 
digestive tract of a hen. A laying hen preferred. For reference reading 
see Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl, published by W. B. Saunders Co., 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

135. The Organs Through Which Food Passes. The food 
is taken up by the beak and, by a backward movement of the 
tongue and a jerk of the head, is thrown back into the throat 
and passes down the first part of the esophagus (No. 2, Fig 24). 
The esophagus gives passage to the food to the crop (No. 3, 
Fig. 24). The crop is simply a storehouse for food. From the 
crop the food passes through the second portion of the esophagus 
to the proventriculus, a spindle-shaped organ just in front of the 
gizzard (No. 4, Fig. 24). The proventriculus secretes a strong 
acid and pepsin, in which the food soaks before it passes to the 
gizzard. From the proventriculus the food goes on to the giz- 
zard (No. 5, Fig. 24). The gizzard is provided with strong 
muscles. and has a thick pad lining it. In the gizzard the food 
is ground and is mixed with a ferment secreted by glands in 
the gizzard walls. This ferment is pepsin and aids in digesting 
the food so that it can be used by the body. From the gizzard 
the food passes into the loop or the first portion of the small 
intestine (No. 6, Fig. 24). Here it is mixed with a fluid which 
is manufactured by the pancreas (No. 13, Fig*. 24). From the 
small intestinal loop the food passes into the floating or free 
portion of the small intestine, where it is mixed with a fluid 
secreted by the intestinal wall. All of these fluids contain 
ferments which digest the nutrients of the food and resolve them 
into a state in which they can be absorbed by the blood and 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



63 




Fig. 24. The digestive and respiratory tracts of the fowl: 1, tongue; 
2, first portion of esophagus ; 3, crop ; 4, proventriculus ; 5, gizzard ; 6, 
duodenum or small intestinal loop ; 7, free portion of the small intes- 
tine ; 8, large intestine or rectum ; 9, mesentery or web supporting the 
intestine; 10, caeca or blind pouches; 11, cloaca; 12, anus; 13, pancreas; 
14, liver; 15, spleen; 16, larynx; 17, trachea; 18, lung. 






04 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

used to nourish the body. No. 14, Fig. 24, is the liver, which 
secretes bile or gall and from which gall is poured out into the 
small intestine about fourteen inches from the point of origin 
of the latter. The bile aids in the digestion of the fats of the 
food ; indeed, without it fats cannot be digested. From the small 
intestine the food passes into the two blind pouches called caeca, 
which are shown at No. 10, Fig. 24. From this point the food 
continues into the large intestine, shown in No. 8, Fig. 24. Both 
the caeca and the large intestine contain glands in their walls 
and secrete a fluid which contains ferments of aid in digesting 
the nutrients of the food. From the large intestine the food 
that is undigested and unabsorbed passes into a sac called the 
cloaca and is then passed out. 

136. The spleen (No. 15, Fig. 24) is a small body shaped much 
like a horse chestnut and is a blood-forming organ. 

137. The Organs of Breathing or Respiration. The air passes 
in at the nostrils, through the nasal passage, out at the back 
part of the roof of the mouth, into the throat, and then into 
the windpipe, as shown in No. 16, Fig. 24. The air next passes 
through the windpipe, into the lungs (No. 18, Fig. 24), then 
into the air sacs. 



CHAPTER XII 
POULTRY FEEDS AND THEIR. VALUES 

• 

138. What a Nutrient Is. A nutrient is a substance which can 
be taken into the body, digested, and absorbed. When a nutrient 
has been digested and absorbed, it is capable of nourishing the 
body. 

139. Kinds of Nutrients Required. There are three kinds of 
nutrients required. They are protein ; starches and sugars, called 
carbohydrates, and fats, called hydrocarbons. 

140. What Protein Is and Its Function in the Body. Protein 
is the only nutrient of poultry feeds containing- nitrogen. Pro- 
tein aids in building up muscles, bones, and intestinal organs. 
If a surplus is taken in, it goes to form fat in the body. 

141. What Starches and Sugars Are and Their Function. 
Starches and sugars contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and 
are used in, the body for the production of heat and energy, much 
as an automobile uses gasoline for the production of heat and 
energy. If a surplus is taken into the body, it is converted into 
fat or is stored up as glycogen until it is needed by the body 
for combustion. 

142. What Fats Are and Their Function. Fats, like starches 
and sugars, contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in dif- 
ferent amounts. Fats are similar in function to starches and 
sugars. They are used to produce heat and energy, and a surplus 
left over is stored up as fat in the body of the bird. 

143. These three groups of food nutrients must be in the 
proper proportion to give the best results. 

144. Corn. There are three kinds of corn of interest ttf poultry 
feeders. These are flint, dent, and sweet corn. Corn does not 
make a complete feed by itself. It must be given with other 
grains and is then one of our very best feeds. 



66 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

145. Forms in Which Corn Is Fed. Corn is fed whole to lay- 
ing hens. Cracked corn is fed to chicks and to young chickens 
on range. Ground corn or corn meal is used in the ground mix- 
tures for young chickens, in the mash for the birds on range, 
and for laying hens. Gluten feed i$ a by-product of the corn 
used in the manufacture of starch and is rich in protein. It 
is therefore one of our most useful high protein vegetable feeds 
for mash mixtures. 

146. Wheat. Wheat is richer in protein or muscle-building 
nutrients than corn and is fed as whole wheat to young chicks, 
growing chickens, and laying hens. Cracked wheat is fed 
to baby chicks. There are three by-products of wheat, namely : 
shorts, middlings, and bran. These by-products are used in the 
mash mixtures for both young and old birds. 

147. Rye and Barley. Rye and barley are not quite so good 
for feed as wheat, but may be used as a substitute when found 
necessary. 

148. Oats. Oats are one of the standard feeds, both for old 
birds, as whole oats, and as crushed oats in the mash for young 
and old birds. Hulled oats and pinhead oats are used in feed- 
ing young chickens. 

149. Rice and Buckwheat. Rice and buckwheat are not used 
extensively, but can be used partly as substitutes for wheat, 
corn, and oats. 

150. Cottonseed Meal. Cottonseed meal is rich in protein, but 
it contains a poisonous substance called gossypol. If too much 
is fed, it has a bad effect on birds, causing them to become sick 
of it, lose their appetite, and even die. Not over 10 per cent of 
cottonseed meal should be fed in the mash feed. If not more 
than 10 per cent is fed in the mash, it proves a good feed for 
young chicks and for laying hens. Cottonseed meal sometimes 
causes dark brown yolks in the eggs. Most people object to 
these brown yolks, though they in no way render the eggs 
unwholesome. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 6j 

151. Soybean Meal. Soybeans, like cottonseed, are used by 
the oil mills for the production of oil. After the oil is pressed 
out of the ground soybeans, the residue is ground and sold in 
the market as stock feed. Soybean meal is very rich in protein 
and is one of the very best feeds for both chicks and laying hens. 

152. Peanut Meal. Peanuts are ground by the oil mills and 
their oil extracted by hydraulic presses. After the oil has been 
pressed out, the residue is ground and sold in the market as 
stock feed. Peanut meal is rich in protein and is one of the 
very best feeds for poultry, both young and old. 

153. Velvet Bean Meal. Velvet bean meal,, consisting of 
ground pods and beans, is injurious to both young and old 
birds and is not recommended for poultry feeding. 

154. Meat Scrap, Fish Meal, and Blood Meal. Meat scrap, 
fish scrap or meal, and dried blood or blood meal are used as 
poultry feeds. These are called animal feeds and furnish our 
birds with animal protein. Animal protein is essential if the 
maximum growth or the maximum tgg production is expected. 
If the birds run on range, they will get their animal feed in the 
form of bugs and insects, but in the winter time and when shut 
up, as in back lots, it is necessary to furnish them with animal 
food. 

155. Milk. Milk is a common form of animal food for 
chickens. It may be fed as sour skim milk, in semi-solid forms, 
as those bought from some of the creameries, as dried butter- 
milk, or as buttermilk direct from the churn. Buttermilk is a 
common feed for chicks and is of aid in preventing diarrhea. 

156. Green Feed. Green feed is essential for growing" birds, 
as well as for breeding and laying stock. This may be furnished 
by allowing them to run on a green field, or by supplying them 
with sprouted oats, mangels, collards, or cabbage grown during 
the summer. 

157. Spoiled Feeds. Spoiled feeds such as moldy grain, mill 
feeds, or moldy table scraps must be avoided, as birds are easily 
made sick by spoiled food. 



68 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

158. When and How to Plant Grazing Crops for Poultry. 

Grazing crops can be provided most of the year for poultry. 
In part of January and February, and this especially holds true 
in the mountain section, it is necessary either to sprout oats or 
provide mangels or turnips. For best results in egg produc- 
tion, birds must be provided with succulent feeds. 

The tabulation on the next page will be found useful informa- 
tion for the beginner : 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



« 
H 

& 

o 

ft. 

« 
o 

fa 

CO 

ft. 
O 

« 
o 

N 

« 

O 

fa 

o 
o 

H 






*> ^ 

^ 



q ra 



c 






C#J 






o 


■d 

cu 

E 


o 


"3 


<U 


u 


00 


3 


-a 


£ 


a 


g 


"5 


c 

o 


a 


O 

e 


E 


E 


-*— i 


CJ 


«-r-l 


en 



c 
o 



£ J: J5 c c c 



to 

I 



bo 



O 

c 



c 



bo bo 



T3 TJ 



J3 

bo 



o 

9-* rG 



•G 
bo 



£ £ 



^ 2 ~ | * -5 



«U CO 

V cu 



^ £ -c 

< 



(XI 



O O 



cu 



C P C _r< J? jC 
g O 3 "g -g -5 



£ -c 



.5 
o 

c 



c 

o 



O O O O O ~-4 

_ <\J <NJ ^ ^ ^ 



>» >> -s *e 



£» &0 tab ^ 

cu t-j ,-# rt cd — 



Cj CO 

-a 

c 



Pl< 



> 
o 



cd 



cu 
co X! 

3 3 



bo 
cu" 3 
CO < 



U 



U 

•a 

c 

cu 



C 
'? 

Ih 

o 

fa 



c 

o 

Oh 



Cti 



tf ^ 



o 






<u On 



£ J2 J2 J2 



P* « H CQ CO P* 



O 



u 


o 


QJ 

CO 


o 

to 


-*-> 


E 


C 


c 


QJ 


E 

C3 


cd 


rt 


CU 

CO 


a 




S 







jo The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

Oats may be used for either summer or winter grazing. Rape 
can be raised spring, summer, and fall if there is sufficient 
rainfall. Soybeans and cowpeas can be raised spring, summer, 
and fall as a yard rotation crop, if there is sufficient rainfall. 
Turnips and mangels make the best root crops for winter feed- 
ing. Collards and cabbage, as well as lettuce raised in cold 
frames, also make excellent succulent feed. In raising mangels 
it is best to plough the ground deeply in the fall. The freezing 
will pulverize the ground and tend to make it in better condition 
for the crop. Good black loam soil is the best. The ground 
should be manured. If manure is not available, fertilize by dis- 
tributing four to five hundred pounds of fertilizer to the acre. 
Plant the mangel seed in rows two and a half to three feet apart, 
sow thick, later thin out, leaving one strong beet stock to each 
ten inches. The rows should be ridged, the top of the ridge being 
about two inches above the surface of the ground. The seed 
should be planted about one inch deep. Gather the root crops 
as late in the fall as possible. Bury in the ground until ready 
to use them. To do this, place about six inches of straw on 
the ground, then pile or windrow, cover mangels or turnips 
with about six inches of straw or hay and cover with dirt. In 
securing the dirt, take that close around the piles of roots so 
that there will be drainage away from the pile, which will thus 
keep dry. The roots thus prepared should keep till January 
and February, when they are most needed. During the fall and 
early winter grazing crops may be used. 



CHAPTER XIII 

FEEDING LAYERS AND BREEDERS 

Note to Teacher : Have student mix feeds for flock. 

159. Water Supply. Laying and breeding hens must have a 
fresh and pure supply of water at all times. Especially in hot 
weather, water should be kept before the birds without fail. The 
water containers must be scrubbed or washed out : use the hand 
to remove the slime which has accumulated on the sides and 
bottom of the pan. Impure water and polluted water pans are 
fruitful sources of bowel troubles in hens. 

160. Green Feed Essential. Green feed can be provided by 
allowing the hens to run on green fields or plots planted for 
them ; or, if they are in a back town lot, green feed must be 
carried to them. Each hundred fowls should receive not less 
than four pounds of green feed per day. 

161. Regularity of Feeding. Regularity is one of the most 
important items of feeding. The green feed must be given each 
day at the same time. The grain feed must be given at the 
same time mprning and evening. 

162. Breeding Birds Must Be on the Ground. It is necessary 
for all breeding birds to be out on a grassy run if a high degree 
of fertility is to be expected. 

163. Grain Feed and Mash. Grain feed should be given morn- 
ing and evening. A pint measure of grain should be scattered 
in deep litter for each twelve hens in the morning and the same 
quantity in the evening. 

164. Dry Ground Feed or Mash. Mash consists of a mixture 
of ground grain and mill by-products. Dry mash should be 
kept before the birds at all times. Birds on the range will not 
consume much mash during the summer, when foods such as 



J2 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

waste grain, bugs and insects are so abundant. Later in the 
fall or in the winter they will consume more, since the mash 
is used by the birds as a filler. If the hens become too fat, it 
may be necessary to keep the dry mash hopper closed part of 
the time. 

165. Value of Exercise. Exercise is essential for the best 
results in laying. In the winter time this exercise can be given 
by placing a deep litter, such as straw, leaves, or shredded stover, 
on the floor of the hen house, and throwing the grain feed into 
this, which causes the hens to scratch for their grain. For this 
reason grain feeds have been called scratch feed. 

166. Minerals for Poultry. Breeding and laying hens need 
lime and grit. Most feeds are deficient in lime. If the birds run 
at large, it may be secured from the fields, but if the birds are 
kept on the back lot, crushed oyster shell should be provided. 
Birds at large will find sufficient grit in the form of pieces of 
pebbles and cinders, but if they are kept in a restricted enclosure, 
crushed limestone should be provided. The limestone will also 
be a source of lime needed in the body in the manufacture of 
egg shells and for other purposes. 

167. Sufficient Nutrients. If grain alone is fed and the birds 
do not have a fruitful range or do not receive an ample supply 
of table scraps, they will not lay many eggs. The white of the 
egg is pure albumin and the yolk is made up of albumin and 
fat as well as coloring and mineral matter. The albumin must 
come from the protein of the feed. Grains do not furnish a 
sufficient amount of protein for heavy egg production. 

168. Reasons for Feeding Mash. Mash contains by-products 
and animal feeds rich in protein and is essential for high egg 
production. A mash should contain animal food in the form 
of meat scrap, fish scrap, dried blood, or dried buttermilk, and 
at least one by-product high in protein content, such as soybean 
meal, peanut meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten meal. 

169. Hot Mashes. Hot mashes given at four o'clock in the 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 73 

evening during the winter months have a very stimulating effect 
on egg production. Use milk or water and bring the mixture 
to a boil. Use enough water or milk to mix with one ounce of 
mash per bird. Make the mash crumbly moist and as hot as you 
can bear your hand in. Vegetables, such as shredded mangels, 
cabbage, or collards, should be boiled in the water or milk. 

170. Formulas for Grain Mixtures: 

Corn 10 pounds 

Oats 10 pounds 

Wheat 20 pounds 

Oats 10 pounds 

Corn _ 20 pounds 

Wheat 10 pounds 

Oats 10 pounds 

Buckwheat 10 pounds 

Corn 60 pounds 

Wheat 40 pounds 

Oats 20 pounds 

171. Formulas for Mash Mixtures: 

Beef scrap _ 3 quarts 

Corn meal „ 8 quarts 

Soybean meal 3 quarts 

Wheat middlings 4 quarts 

Ground oats 3 quarts 

Birds given milk to drink. 

Peanut meal 3 quarts 

Wheat middlings 4 quarts 

Ground oats 3 quarts 

Birds given milk to drink. 

If birds are not given milk to drink, add one quart of meat 
scrap to the last two mash mixtures. 

Wheat bran 20 pounds 

Wheat shorts .' — 20 pounds 

Meat scrap 10 pounds 



74 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

172. Average Weight and Volume of Feeds: 



Feed. 

Beef scrap 

Corn meal 

Corn, whole 

Cottonseed meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Oats, ground 

Oats, whole 

Rye, whole 

Soybean meal 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings (flour). 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat, whole 



One quart 


One pound 


zveighs 


measures 


(pounds). 


(quarts). 


1.3 


0.8 


1.5 


0.7 


1.7 


0.6 


1.5 


0.7 


1.3 


0.8 


1.7 


0.6 


0.7 


1.4 


1.0 


' 1.0 


1.6 


0.6 


1.3 


0.8 


0.5 


2.0 


1.2 


0.8 


0.8 


1.3 


1.9 


0.5 



CHAPTER XIV 
CANDLING AND GRADING MARKET EGGS 

Note to Teacher : Have student candle and grade eggs. 

173. Losses From Careless Handling of Eggs. It has been 
estimated that the annual loss from the careless handling- of 
eggs amounts, in the United States alone, to $90,000,000. It is 
estimated that about 70 per cent of this loss occurs before the 
eggs arrive in town. 

174. How to Prevent Losses on the Farm. Remove the male 
birds from the flock immediately after the breeding season and 
market no fertile eggs. Provide roomy nests and plenty of 
clean nesting material, preferably dry shavings or straw. Do 
not allow broody hens on the nests. Keep the nests clean and 
sanitary. Collect the eggs regularly, at least once a day in mod- 
erate weather and more frequently in very warm weather. Carry 
them at once in a clean basket to a cool, dry cellar and cover 
them with a clean cloth to prevent dust from settling on them 
and also to prevent evaporation and fading. Do not pack eggs 
loose in a box when taking them to market, but rather secure 
a suitable egg case and thus avoid breakage. Market as fre- 
quently and as directly as possible. 

175. Males Not Necessary for Egg Production. The male 
birds are not essential for egg production. They have to do 
with the fertilization of the egg but not with its formation. 
Hens should not be mated except when eggs are desired for 
hatching. 

176. Blood Rings. When the germ in the egg begins to 
develop and then dies, after three to five days, there will be 
noted a red ring in the center of the egg. This is the blood 
ring. 



7 6 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



177. Production of Small Eggs. Pullets lay small eggs. Mon- 
grel hens often produce a large percentage of small eggs. Eggs 
should weigh one and a half pounds to the dozen or forty-five 
pounds net to the thirty-dozen case. Small eggs should not be 
marketed unless there are more than are needed for home use ; 
then they should be sold separately. 



« * t '* I j 


; *s i£ ^ < ft 


60 

65 
50 
46 
40 
Si 

MM 
























% 
6o 

5~5 

50 

4-5 

4G 

Z5 

50 

25 

20 
15 

to 
5 










\ 






















\ 
















I 






















/ 










\ 












/ 










\ 












/ 




















9* 

25 

2o 
25 
iO 




/ 













































































































Fig. 25. A graph showing the average percentage of eggs to expect 
of a flock each month. Note the heaviest production is in April and 
May. Compare with graph 26 and note that the greatest production is 
in the time of year when eggs are lowest in price. 

178. Grading According to Color. If large and small eggs 
and white and brown eggs are in the lot to be graded, the eggs 
should be divided into four lots, as follows : large browns and 
small browns, large whites and small whites. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising yy 

179. How to Ship Market Eggs. Market eggs should be 
shipped in thirty-dozen cases. 

180. Construction of the Thirty-Dozen Case. A thirty-dozen 
case is made up of two compartments, each of which holds five 
three-dozen fillers. The fillers are the strawboard cells in which 





65 
80 

15 

70 

66 
6o 

55 
5b 

56 
SO 
























8o 

75 

70 

6d~ 

60 

65 

50 

4-f 








































/ 


_ 



















i 
/ 


s 






/ 


\ 

\ 
\ 












/ 

/ 










\ 
\ 












/ 












\ 










/ 
/ 












\ 








S* 


1 
f 












\ 

\ 






/ 
/ 




/ 


•*•" 










\ 


^ 




/ 
/ 


^ 


/ 








35 








^*, 


; 


f ^ 



































Fig. 26. A graph showing the fluctuation of the prices of eggs each 
month in the year. The figures along the sides are the prices of eggs 
each month. Blank line indicates the average prices paid in North Caro- 
lina and the broken line shows the prices paid on the New York market. 
Compare with graph 25 and note that the high prices are in the time 
of year when the fewest hens are laying. 

the eggs are placed. Each filler holds three dozen eggs. Be- 
tween the fillers are the flats. A flat is a square piece of heavy 
strawboard just the size of the compartment. There is left a 
half-inch space above and the same space on the bottom of the 



78 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



case for a thin layer of excelsior. This excelsior acts as a buffer 
and aids in preventing breakage. 

181. Hauling Eggs to Market. Do not haul the filled egg 
cases in a lumber wagon. A spring wagon or auto truck is 
required, as the jar of a wagon without springs will result in 
the breakage of two or three dozen eggs in each case. 



%H 



EM5 LMlttfr NECESSARY TO PAY FOR FEED.- 



7 0< & CT y 1 " **> >- sT Cl ■>• 

►3 u- i-<a: i^^<C(oo^:f^ 


96 
50 

H5 
HO 

35 

25 
20 

»5 

10 

5 
























50 

3>5 

25 
20 




























































































































































15 
10 

5 


/ 






• 






































c,r»n 


'tov .. 
















p.tvt 


oy '16 



Fig. 27. A graph showing the percentage of hens of any one flock 
that must lay each month to pay for the feed of the entire flock. Com- 
pare graphs 25 and 26, giving monthly prices, and note that the greatest 
number must lay in the months when the prices of eggs are lowest. 



182. Shipping Eggs for Hatching. Eggs for hatching should 
be packed in special parcel post containers. These containers 
can be purchased in the market. A container should hold just 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



79 



fifteen eggs. Each egg should be wrapped in soft paper, fine 
hay, or excelsior before being placed in its cell to insure a 
"springy" nest for it. Sawdust, bran, or cottonseed pack too 
closely and are not suitable. 

183. Points in Grading Eggs. Eggs are graded according to 
freshness, cleanliness, size, color, and soundness of shell. 

184. Cracked Shells. Broken shells are called blind checks, 





_ 



Fig. 28. A HOME-MADE CANDLER. 



checks, dents, and leakers. Blind checks can be determined 
only by the candle test. A crack that is visible is called a check. 
If the shell is dented and does not leak, it is called a dent. If 
the crack or dent has a broken shell membrane, the egg con- 
tents will leak, and such an egg is called a leaker. 

185. Use of the Candler. Fig. 28 shows a home-made candler. 



8o 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



The egg is held before the candler with the large end up and 
inclined at an angle of about forty-five degrees. Slightly jerk 
the egg sidewise and the yolk will be noted as a dark central 
mass. If the egg is fresh, the air cell, about the size of a dime, 
will be seen at the large end of the egg. 

186. Change in the Size of the Air Cell. As soon as an egg 
is laid, the air cell begins to enlarge, a process due to evaporation 
through the shell. If an egg is kept for some time, the air cell 
will be enlarged in proportion to the amount of evaporation that 
has taken place. 

187. What to Look For. Your object in candling is to see 
that all the eggs you place on the market are good for food, 
for if you guarantee your eggs and have a uniform product, 
with all eggs up to standard size (177), you will receive more 
for your product than those selling a poorer product. Always 
seek a market that will pay a premium for a good product. 
Look for and reject those eggs that show a blood ring, a blind 
check, a very dark superficial yolk, which indicates a heated 
egg, a large air cell, any black objects in any part of the egg, 
or chick development. 

188. An Egg Chart: 

FRESH EGGS* 



BEFORE THE CANDLE 

Air space : Not enlarged ; less than 
three-fourths inch in diameter. 

White : Firm and clear. 

Yolk : Dimly seen through the 
white as a shadowy object indis- 
tinct in outline. The chick spot 
is not visible. 

Distingu ish ing char act eristics : 
No shrinkage and general firm 

conditions of white and yolk. 
Edible. 



OUT OF THE SHELL. 

White: Firm and thick; opales- 
cent; reflects the light. 

Yolk : Spherical and firm ; chick 
spot small with no sign of hatch- 
ing. Color is uniform ■ for the 
entire yolk, but varies from light 
yellow to deep orange, and is 
occasionally olive green. 

Distinguishing characteristics : 
General firm condition of white 
and yolk. White, opalescent. 



* The color of a white egg before the candle is yellow with a pinkish tinge, that 
of a brown egg is pinker, and that of a dark brown egg is almost red. In each in- 
stance the color deepens in the region of the yolk.— U. S. Dept. Agr. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



81 



HATCH-SPOT EGG 



BEFORE THE CANDLE 

Air space: Usually enlarged. 

White : Thin and clear. 

Yolk: A distinct reddish glow 

around the germinal spot, which 

is visible ; usually located above 

the middle of the egg. 
Distinguishing characteristics : 

Reddish glow on the yolk. 

Edible. 

Occurrence : Chiefly during warm 



OUT OF THE SHELL 

White: Thin and clear; no opales- 
cence ; does not reflect the light 
as strongly as does a fresh egg. 

Yolk: Bears a hatch spot; is flat- 
tened, being especially weak 
around the embryo. 

Distinguishing characteristics : 
Hatch spot on the yolk. 

weather or hatching season. 



STALE EGG 



OUT OF THE SHELL 

White : Thin ; no opalescence ; does 

not reflect the light as much as 

does a fresh egg. 
Yolk : Flattened, and occasionally 

may have light, mottled areas. 
Distinguishing characteristics : 

Thin, white, and flattened yolk. 



BEFORE THE CANDLE 

Air space: Enlarged; the lower 

wall may be movable in outline. 
White : Thin and clear. 
Yolk: Definite in outline; some- 
times weak, and may occasionally 

have dark, mottled areas. 
Distinguishing characteristics : 

Enlarged air cell and increased 

contrast between white and yolk 

as compared with a fresh egg. 

Edible. 

Occurrence : Among eggs not marketed promptly. 

189. Marketing Eggs in Clubs. It is good practice to form 
a school club under the direction of the principal. The eggs 
are brought to the school, and each pupil candles his own eggs 
and places them in the proper grade, taking honie any that are 
not first class. Many such clubs have found it possible to secure 
from ten to eighteen cents per dozen more than producers around 
them who did not candle and grade their eggs and sell under a 
guarantee. Pure-bred hens make a uniform product. 



CHAPTER XV 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBINATION SITTING 
AND BROODING COOP 

Note to Teacher : Have students make a combination sitting and 
brooding coop and paint it, ready for use. 

190. Natural Incubation. By natural incubation is meant 
hatching chicks with the hen. 

191. Natural Brooding. By natural brooding is meant brood- 
ing or rearing chicks with the hen. 

192. What the Combination Sitting and Brooding Coop Is. 
The combination sitting and brooding coop is a small coop 
with an extension run. The hen is set and, after hatching, is 
housed in the coop and allowed to run out into the extension 
run. The hen is confined to the run and the chicks are allowed 
to roam at large for grass, bugs, and insects. 

193. List of Material for One Combination Sitting and Brood- 
ing Coop: 

1 bunch of plaster lath. 

2 boards, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet (for bottom, sides, and back). 
6 pieces, 2 inches by 2 inches by 12 feet (for framing for run and 

house). 

1 piece of rubberoid, 3 J / 2 feet square. 

3 hinges 4 inches long (two for side door and one for front lattice 
strip). 

3 four-inch hooks and eyes (for top and side door). 

194. Dimensions of House. The floor is two feet square. The 
back is eighteen inches high. The front is two feet high. The 
floor is provided with boards where rats are troublesome. The 
roof is made to overreach four inches on all sides. The roof is 
covered with rubberoid. The front is slatted, allowing spaces 
for chicks to pass out. One slat is hinged in the center, as is 
shown in Fig. 30, No. 6. If this slat is placed in position, with 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



«3 



the hinge on the inside, the hen cannot push it out. The house 
is provided with a hinged door on one side. The side door is 
kept fastened with a hook and eye. The top is held down with 
a hook and eye on each side, so that the wind cannot blow it off. 




Fig. 29. The combination sitting and brooding coop. A, the open 
door; B, the top; C, the extension run. The figures give the dimensions 
of the various parts. 



195. Notes on Construction. The roof is of a shed-like struc- 
ture and so made that two-inch by two-inch framing material 
fits over the top of the building like a hood. The bottom may 
be made removable and of eight-inch board. This renders it 
possible to use the coop in cold weather; and in summer time, 
if rats do not interfere, it can be removed and the chicks allowed 
to roost on the ground. The framing material of the coop is 
two-inch by two-inch. Notches are cut out of the floor to fit 
tightly around the framing. To keep rats out of the coop, make 



84 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



a frame of one-inch by four-inch material and tack on the front 
of this one-half-inch sand screen or netting. This is placed in 
front of the coop at night. Three eight-inch boards, one cut to 
an angle, make the side. Hinge the middle board to the bottom 
one and use a hook and eye to fasten it to the top board. 

196. The Extension Run. The extension run is the length of 
a plaster lath. The framing material is of two-inch by two-inch* 





1 1 


\ ,. 


iff ]*^f — "2 


-a — 28 -h 


■Pi 


1 




H ; 'jjfi 


1 1 H 1 




J 1 ^3\J3l 


""^^RT; ~ ?" .^ 


».^HhRHHMMm 






Fig. 30. The sitting and brooding coop. 1, the left, showing angle 
to cut board ; 2, the side door open ; 3, the top ; 4, the front slats ; 5, the 
removable bottom ; 6, the hinged removable slat. Dimensions of the 
various parts are given. 



planking. The framing pieces are cut eighteen inches long and 
nailed together with 20d. spikes. There are three frames, con- 
sisting of four pieces each, one arranged at each end and one 
in the middle of the run. The slats are placed four inches apart, 
with a five-inch space at the bottom for the chicks to pass out 
and in. One of the top slats is removable. This allows feed- 
ing and watering from the top of the run. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SELECTING EGGS FOR HATCHING AND SETTING 

A HEN 

Note to Teacher : Have the students select eggs for hatching and 
make nest. 

197. Kind of Eggs to Select. Select only well-formed eggs 
Do not select eggs with ridges around the middle, or eggs 
that are undersized. Avoid those that have thin shells, those 
with small ends enlarged, those that are short and round or 
abnormally long. Ill-shaped eggs should be discarded, as the 
progeny would not be desirable and they would not hatch well. 
The average hen egg is 2.27 inches long and 1.72 inches in 
diameter. No egg less than two ounces in weight should be 
set, as the markets of the future will grade according to weight 
per dozen. 

198. Age of Eggs for Setting. Do not set eggs over two 
weeks old. Preferably, eggs should not be over one week old. 
The sooner an egg is set after laying, the better the hatch. 

199. Care of Eggs for Hatching. See that the breeding hens 
have clean nests. Place the eggs in a clean basket or other 
container and leave it in a dry, cool place. Cover with a cloth 
or paper. Remember that hatching changes occur in eggs kept 
at temperatures above 70° F. and that an egg freezes at 28° F. 
Do not allow broody hens to remain on the nests of the laying 
hens. Hauling over rough roads or rough handling may cause 
internal injuries that would interfere with the hatching qualities. 

200. Hatching Expectancy. Out of fifteen eggs set under the 
hen, on an average one may expect ten chicks, and if they are 
shipped a distance by parcel post or express, eight is the average 
per sitting. Set fifteen eggs under each hen. 



86 the Essentials of Poultry Raising 

201. Vigor of Chicks. If the hen is irregular in sitting- and 
stays off the nest too long, thus allowing the eggs to become 
chilled, or if the eggs are in an incubator and the temperature 
is irregular or too high, the chicks will be more or less weak. 
A large egg hatches a large chick, and this chick outgrows 
the small, runty chick hatched from a small egg. Immature 
cockerels produce weak chicks. Improper care and feeding of 
the breeding stock also tend to the producing of weak chicks. 

202. When to Hatch Chicks. The utility breeds, such as the 
Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, and Wyandottes, should 
be hatched in February and March. The smaller egg producing 
breeds, as the Leghorns, should be hatched from the last week 
in March to the first week in May. 

203. Average Length of Time Required to Hatch Eggs. Hen 
eggs hatch in twenty-one days, goose eggs in thirty days, duck 
eggs in twenty-eight days, turkey eggs in twenty-eight days, 
guinea eggs in thirty days, and pigeon eggs in seventeen days. 

204. How to Set a Hen. Make a frame fourteen inches square 
and six inches high. Place it in the center of the combination 
sitting and brooding coop. Use as nesting material excelsior 
or fine hay. With the hand round out the nest well, so there 
will be no pockets in the corners for the eggs to roll into, and 
thoroughly press down the center, making a good U-shaped nest. 
Secure a hen that is broody and place her on the nest with one 
egg. Hang a burlap bag in front of the coop and on the second 
day take the hen off and feed and water her. If she goes back 
on the nest, she may be set on the following day. The sitting 
coop makes it possible to keep clean water and feed before the 
hen at all times and allow r her to come off when she chooses. 
Dust the hen with insect powder when she is set and again 
when she is taken from the nest with chicks. 

205. The Kind of Hen That Makes the Best Mother. The 
best mothers are the larger breeds, as the Rhode Island Reds 
or the Plymouth Rocks. The hen should be well-feathered and 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 87 

of good temper. To determine if a hen is ready to set, place 
the hand under her; if she nestles over your hand, she is likely 
to make a good sitter and mother. A pullet does not usually 
make a good mother. 

206. Sign of a Sitting Hen. When a hen becomes broody, 
she will be noted to stay on the nest longer than usual and in 
a day or two will remain on the nest all the time. She will now 
ruffle her neck feathers and cluck if disturbed. 

207. Structure of the Egg. If an egg is boiled its structure 
can be studied. The parts from the outside inward are as fol- 
lows : lime shell, outer and inner membranes, albumin, and yolk. 
The outer and inner membranes separate at the large end, form- 
ing an air cell. Two hard masses or shreds of albumin, called 
chalazae, are formed at the poles of the egg in the albumin. The 
yolk is surrounded by a delicate membrane. On the top of the 
yolk there is located the germ called the blastoderm. When 
an egg is laid, the yolk is nearly in the center of the mass of 
albumin. The yolk gradually becomes more superficial, until 
after a week there is only a thin layer of albumin between the 
yolk and the shell membranes. There is always a layer of 
albumin between the yolk and shell up to the twenty-first day. 

208. How the Egg Is Formed. The yolk is formed in the 
ovary. The rest of the egg is formed in the oviduct or egg 
canal, which is eighteen to twenty inches long. In the first 
portion the albumin or w r hite of the egg is formed ; in a follow- 
ing portion the shell membranes are formed ; and in a part still 
farther along the shell is formed ; then finally the color is fixed. 

209. When to Candle Incubating Eggs. It is best to set six 
hens at one time. Candle the white eggs on the fifth day and 
the brown eggs on the seventh day. If the egg is infertile it 
will be clear. These eggs are good for food and can be used 
on the home table, but should not be sold, since the shaking 
they must undergo in hauling will addle many of them. If they 
are not wanted for table use, keep them and later boil them 



88 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

and feed them to the baby chicks. After the eggs have all been 
candled (185), count the infertile ones and estimate the percent- 
age of fertility. It is well to candle eggs again on the sixteenth 
day. This is to remove the dead germs. At this time the air 
cell will be noticed to be very large; if the germ is dead, the 
air cell will be cloudy and the germ or chick will not be so 
large as the live chicks. 

210. Eggs set in the incubator do not hatch as well as those 
set under hens. It is seldom that more than 50 to 65 per cent 
of all eggs placed in the incubator hatch. The greatest number 
of deaths occur during the latter part of the first week and 
during the latter part of the third week of incubation. 



CHAPTER XVII 

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 

Note to Teacher : The student should study and make drawings of 
the various parts of an incubator. 

211. Artificial Incubation. By artificial incubation is meant 
hatching- eggs with an incubator. 

212. Artificial Brooding. By artificial brooding is meant rear- 
ing chicks with a brooder. 

213. Kinds of Incubators. There are small and large incu- 
bators. The small incubators are of various capacities, some 
holding sixty eggs, others 120, 144, 150, 200, and 240 eggs. 
The largest incubators are called mammoth because they hold 
from 1200 and 1800 to several thousand eggs. 

214. Fuel Used in Incubators. The fuel used in incubators, 
both small and mammoth, is oil, gas, or coal, or electricity may 
be employed. 

215. Methods of Heating Incubators. Incubators may be 
heated by hot water or by hot air through a diffusion diaphragm. 

216. Construction of the Small Incubator. The small incu- 
bator consists of three essential parts : an insulated and venti- 
lated box called the body, a heating device, and a heat-regulating 
device. 

217. The Body of the Incubator. The body of the incubator 
is supported on legs. The heating device is attached to the side 
of the body, except in those incubators heated by electricity or 
by stoves. 

The body is divided into three chambers : an upper, a middle, 
and a lower. The upper chamber is the heating apartment, and 
is separated from the egg chamber by a diaphragm in those 
incubators that are heated by diffusion. In the hot-water system 



go 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



the chamber is occupied by pipes. These pipes are not separated 
from the egg chamber. 
.The eggs occupy the middle chamber. 




AN OIL-BURNING INCUBATOR. 

Fig. 31. 1, body; 2, heat diffusion diaphragh lowered; 3, egg tray; 
4, thermometer; 5, nursery tray partly drawn out; 6, lamp; 7, heating 
drum from which air passes into incubator; 8, glass door; 9, damper bar; 
10, damper disc; 11, balance weight; 12, candler ; this metal chimney is 
used with the incubator lamp in a dark room to candle eggs. 



The lower chamber is provided with a canvas-covered tray, 
and is called a nursery chamber. A glass door is placed in 
front, so that the chicks, as fast as they are hatched, are 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



91 



attracted by the light and, coming- forward, drop down into 
the nursery tray. 

218. Heat Necessary for Incubation. An incubator thermom- 
eter must be provided. The bulb of the thermometer should 
be at the upper level of the eggs. The temperature should be 
103° F. at all times. If the temperature accidentally goes to 
105° F. there is danger of killing the germs, and if it goes 




Fig. 32. Incubator with front removed. Egg trays and nursery drawers 
in place in left-hand side of incubator, and egg trays removed from right- 
hand side. 



to 110° F. it is probable that all of the germs will be killed. 

219. Leveling and Starting the Incubator. The incubator must 
be level. Do not put eggs in the incubator till you have it 
regulated to 103° F. and can hold it through the day and night 
at that temperature. 

220. Care of the Eggs During Incubation. The eggs must 
be turned once a day after the third day. Eggs not turned 



92 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

during incubation will not hatch. Do not turn the eggs after 
the eighteenth day. On the eighteenth day close up the incu- 
bator and do not open again till the hatch is over. Opening 
the incubator during the hatching may kill many of the chicks. 

221. Candling Eggs. See 209. 

222. Conditions Essential for Artificial Brooding. Dryness 
and a constant supply of fresh air are essential. An even and 
proper temperature must be maintained. 

223. Kinds of Brooders. There are two kinds of brooders, 
indoor and outdoor. There are also heated brooders and cold 
brooders. Sufficient space and sunlight must be provided. 
Chicks must not be allowed to become chilled. Fifteen minutes 
of exposure to cold may result later in diarrhea, causing heavy 
losses and an unthrifty condition in those that survive. Small 
oil-burning hovers, with capacities of fifty, one hundred, or 
more chicks, may be purchased. 

224. Construction of the Cold Brooder. The small cold 
brooder is usually made eighteen inches square and eight inches 
deep. A frame made of one-inch material is held by cleats at 
the upper part of the box. Three ventilating holes are bored 
at each side of the upper half. The upper half and lower half 
are hinged at the back. Over the inside frame there is stretched 
cheese cloth or muslin. On this there is placed a feather pillow 
or woolen quilt material. The muslin sags in the middle. The 
chicks keep warm by their own heat. The cold brooder has 
not come into general use owing to the danger of the chicks 
becoming chilled. 

225. Deflector Hovers for Large Flocks. When flocks of 500 
to 1000 are brooded together, large hovers with hoods made of 
metal and heated by coal stoves are used. The temperature 
under the hovers should be 100° F. for the first month and then 
gradually lowered. 

226. A Special House for the Hover. A special house, six 
feet square, has been designed for the 100-chick hover. This 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



93 



same house may be used as a range house for the chicks after 
they are eight weeks old and no longer need artificial heat. 

227. List of Material for the Hover and Range House: 

Runners, 1 piece, 2x6 inches, 14 feet long. 
Sills, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 
Plates, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 
Corner posts, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 
Rafters, 4 pieces, 2x4 inches, 8 feet long. 

Front stud and door facing, 3 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 
Batten for door, 1 piece, 1x4 inches, 8 feet long. 

Four-inch flooring for sides, ends, front, and floor, 52 pieces, 12 feet 
long. 

Roost poles, and rests for same, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long. 

Hardware : 

Hinges for doors, 1 pair, 4 inches, for back ventilator; 2 pairs, 8 inches, 
tor two front doors. 

Hasps for doors, 2 pairs. 

Rubberoid for roof, 64 square feet. 

Chicken netting, 1 piece, 24-inch mesh, 30 inches by 6 feet. 

Chicken netting, 1 piece, 1 foot by 3 feet, 34-inch mesh. 

Nails, 6d. wire, 3 pounds. 




>-* u 



t 



§ 






-2- 






FZONT ELEVATION 



94 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 




AN6LE OF DOOR 
WHEN OPEN 






END ELEVAT/ON 



W 



3^ 



♦ VENTILATOR 



BACK ELEl/AT/ON 

Fig. 33. A house for a 100-chick hover and range house for chicks. 
The end elevation shows the position of the hover. After the chicks are 
eight weeks old, the hover is removed and perch poles are placed six 
inches above the floor for the chicks to perch on. This building is five 
feet high at the rear and seven feet at the front. The hack elevation 
shows the ventilator and the front shows the position of the storm door, 
large door, and trap door through which the chicks pass out and in. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 95 

228. Notes on Construction. The front ventilator prevents 
driven rains from wetting the house. Chicks are allowed to 
run out when the weather is favorable. If this house is to be 
used in cold weather, a small window sash must be placed in 
the front close to the floor. This will allow light and sunshine 
in the house for the birds. The sash can be made to slide and 
the opening should be covered with three-fourths-inch chicken 
wire. This will allow the keeping of the window open on 
warm days. 

The sills are placed on the two sled runners, made of two-inch 
by six-inch oak. This makes it possible to move the house from 
place to place. The sills are placed two feet apart and covered 
with flooring. There are four corner posts made of two-inch 
by four-inch lumber and a front and back plate of the same 
material. The rafters are placed two feet apart and covered 
with sheathing, which is covered, in turn, with rubberoid or 
shingles. 

There is a ventilator in the back near the top of the building. 
This is covered with three-fourths-inch mesh netting and there 
is a door which opens into the room. This door is hinged at 
the bottom. The front wall has a thirty-inch door extending 
the entire width of the building and hinged at the top with three 
strong eight-inch strap hinges, so that it may be propped up 
as indicated in Fig. 33. The front has an opening at the floor 
level which may be closed at night, or there may be made a 
netting door. The front also has a door near the end so that 

I one mav enter the building. This arrangement prevents rain 



from drenching the house. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

FEEDING CHICKS, GOSLINGS, DUCKLINGS, 
AND POULTS 

Note to Teacher : The student should be given exercises in mixing 
chick feed and in feeding chicks. 

229. Feed Requirements for Chicks. Young chicks require 
about one pound of protein or muscle-building material to four 
of starches, sugars, amd fats combined. 

230. Mashes Necessary for Chicks. The amount of protein 
required by chicks makes the feeding of mill by-products and 
other by-products of high protein content necessary. 

231. When to Feed the Baby Chick. Forty-seven per cent of 
the yolk of the egg is incorporated in the abdominal cavity in an 
abdominal yolk sac as abdominal yolk and is sufficient for the 
food requirements of the chick for more than three days after 
it is hatched. Do not feed the chicks till after they have been 
hatched seventy-two hours. 

232. First Feed of the Baby Chick. The first feed of the baby 
chicks should consist of sour curdled milk or fresh buttermilk. 
This feed should not be given before the chicks are seventy-two 
hours old. In the case of incubator chicks, they should be taken 
from the incubator and fed some sour milk the third day after 
the first chick 'hatches. The second day the chicks should be 
given two light feeds in addition to the milk, and the third day 
they should be put on full feed. By following this method, the 
digestive organs are gradually brought into play and time is 
allowed to use the stored up food of the abdominal yolk sac. 
(Examine a baby chick just out of the shell, or one that has 
died while pipping out, for the abdominal yolk sac.) 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 97 

The first solid feed for the baby chick may consist of some 
hard-boiled egg, mixed with bread crumbs, and made soft with 
sour milk. 

After chicks are on full feed they should be given mash, mixed 
with sour skimmed milk or buttermilk, so prepared as to be 
crumbly, three times a day, and a scratch feed twice a day. 

233. Formulas for Dry Mash: 

Soybean meal ..." 33 pounds 

Corn meal 67 pounds 

Peanut meal ._. 33 pounds 

Corn meal 67 pounds 

Ground oats • 28 pounds 

Corn meal 28 pounds 

Wheat middlings 28 pounds 

Meat meal 16 pounds 

Wheat bran 10 pounds 

Wheat shorts 10 pounds 

Corn meal 5 pounds 

Meat meal 5 pounds 

234. Formulas for Grain Feed: 

Cracked corn 5 pounds 

Hulled oats 5 pounds 

Cracked corn 10 pounds 

Cracked wheat 10 pounds 

Pinhead oats 10 pounds 

Cracked corn 5 pounds 

Wheat screenings 10 pounds 

Wheat 20 pounds 

Hulled oats ,.... 15 pounds 

Rice 10 pounds 

235. Grit and Shell Essential. On the first day provide fine 
grit, such as sand. Keep this before the chicks at all times, 
as the gizzard must contain grit to aid in grinding the feed. 



98 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

236. Fresh Water and Clean Dishes Essential. Fresh, clean, 
pure water must be kept before the chicks at all times. The 
water and milk containers must be scrubbed once a day. Spoiled 
milk and feed which has been allowed to lie around are a fruitful 
source of diarrhea. 

237. Feeding Boards Required. Feeding boards one or two 
feet square on which the chicks may be fed are advisable. As 
soon as the chicks have finished eating, these boards should be 
scrubbed in a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal 
tar disinfectant and allowed to dry before the next feeding. 

238. Effects of Chilling. Do not allow the chicks to become 
chilled. If the chicks are with a hen, she will take care of them, 
but if they are brooder chicks, they must be put back under 
the hover as soon as feeding is over if the weather is cold. 
Chilling results in fatal diarrhea. 

239. Effects of Overcrowding. Do not overcrowd the chicks, 
either those with the hen or those in the brooder. Do not over- 
crowd chicks on range. Disease and death always follow over- 
crowding. 

240. Effects of Overheating. If chicks are subjected to high 
temperatures in the hover and then allowed to cool off quickly, 
sickness and heavy losses result. 

241. Look Out for Cannibalism. Chicks often commence to 
eat each other's toes. Immediately remove the chick attacked. 
In such cases, the chicks need more protein. Give them exercise 
and plenty of meat meal and milk. 

242. Dispose of Chicks That Have Had Diarrhea. Toe punch 
all chicks which have had a severe attack of diarrhea, and do 
not save them for breeding purposes, but sell them for broilers. 

243. Chicks Old Enough to Range. As soon as chicks are 
old enough to range for their feed, give them grain morning 
and evening. Discontinue the wet mash and keep dry mash 
before them all the time. An outdoor mash hopper shown in 
Fig. 34 may be used. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



99 



244. Wasting the Feed. Chickens hook out some of the feed 
with their beaks and waste it. To avoid this, cut out a piece 
of one-inch poultry netting a little smaller than the inside of 
the hopper. Allow this to rest on the feed. 

245. Suitable Location for Rearing Turkeys. An orchard or 
wood from which the underbrush has been cut makes an ex 
cellent range. 

246. Suitable Feed for Poultry. Cottage cheese, buttermilk, 
or curdled skim milk is excellent. Oats, corn, and wheat make 
good grain feeds. 





A 

Fig. 34. A, angle view of a$ outdoor mash hopper. B, end diagram 
of same. This mash hopper is provided with three small compartments 
one for grit, one for charcoal, and one for crushed oyster shell. The 
large compartment is for dry mash. 

247. Grit Is Essential. Young turkeys must have grit in the 
form of sand or crushed limestone. 

248. Must Be Free From Vermin. Dust the hens when they 
are set and again when they are taken from the nest. Keep a 
lookout for lice and mites, as these parasites will kill the young 
turkeys. 

249. Feeding the Poult. The first feed should be given the 
young poults seventy-two hours after the first poult has hatched 
The first feed should consist of sour milk or buttermilk. On 



4 
»- 



ioo The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

the following day, the poults should be given a mixture of hard- 
boiled egg and soft bread crumbs. After the fourth day this 
may be replaced with hulled oats, cracked corn, and cracked 
wheat. 

250. Rainstorms and Dew Fatal to Poults. Young turkeys 
must not be allowed to run in the grass when the dew is on 
or allowed to be in heavy rainstorms. 

251. Mash Feed for Young Turkeys. Young turkeys should 
be given one of the mash feeds outlined under chick feeding 
(233). This should be given three times a day till they are 
eight weeks old. After that time the poults should be allowed 
to run to the dry mash hopper and secure their mash in dry 
form when they like. 

252. Suitable Places for Raising Ducks and Geese. Young 
ducks and geese need a shady, grassy run and should not be 
raised with chickens or turkeys. 

253. Feeds Suitable for Young Ducks and Geese. All feed 
given to young ducks and geese should be in a wet form, as 
dry feed may clog up the nose. Ducks should have plenty of 
water in shallow dishes. Green feed in the form of sprouted 
oats, short grass, or range grass is essential. 

254. When to Feed Ducklings and Goslings. Young ducks 
and goslings should be fed on the third day after the first one 
begins to pip out of the shell. They should then be given four 
times a day ground feed mixture made wet with water. Do not 
give ducklings or goslings milk. They must have plenty of grit. 

255. Good Feeds for Ducklings and Goslings: 

Corn meal 2 pounds 

Wheat bran 2 pounds 

Beef meal 1 pound 

No. 2 flour 1 pound 

Green stuff 1 pound 

Wheat bran 10 pounds 

Wheat middlings 5 pounds 

Corn meal 3 pounds 

Meat or fish scrap 2 pounds 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising ioi 

Corn meal 10 pounds 

Wheat bran 10 pounds 

Meat meal 4 pounds 

256. The following is a list of materials for the outdoor mash 



i s 



hopper : 



For ends, partitions, sides, and top, 2 pieces, 1 inch by 12 inches, 16 
feet long. 

For run board and piece by the side of the run board, 2 pieces, 1 inch 
by 4 inches, 12 feet long. 

For base pieces, 1 piece. 2 inches by 2 inches, 12 feet long. 

Rubberoid, 1 piece. 4 feet long by 34 inches wide. 

Hooks and eyes, 3 inches long, for fastening down top, 1 pair. 

Round *4-inch rods, 5 inches long, 20. 

Nails, 7d., 2 pounds. 

257. Notes on Construction of the Outdoor Mash Hopper. 

The top is removable and is held down with two hooks and 
eyes so that the wind cannot blow it off. The top is made of 
two twelve-inch and two four-inch boards. It is braced with 
two pieces of two-inch by two-inch pieces at the outer edge of 
the mash hopper. The top is covered with rubberoid roofing 
tacked tight over all edges. 

The ends are made of one-inch by twelve-inch boards and are 
nailed at the bottom to a two-inch by two-inch base, which pre- 
vents the mash from getting w T et. The sides are made of one- 
inch by twelve-inch board and placed at an angle as indicated 
by the dotted line in Fig. 34, B. The partitions, three in number, 
are made of one-inch by twelve-inch board sawed at the same 
angle as the roof and sides. (See Fig. 34, A and B.) 

The bottom is made of one-inch by twelve-inch board, two 
feet six inches long, and is nailed to the two-inch by two-inch 
base supports. 

The run board is made of one-inch by four-inch board and 
is nailed to the base support. A strip, one inch by four inches, 
nailed to each end, prevents the mash from being wasted, and 
the bars are placed four inches apart at the feed opening. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FATTENING POULTRY AND SHIPPING 
POULTRY PRODUCTS 

258. Poultry Should Be Fattened for Market. Hens and young 
birds intended to be sold in the market should be fattened before 
being marketed. 

259. Length of Time for Fattening. The birds should be fat- 
tened fourteen days. 

260. Milk-Feeding Fattening Fowls. Milk-fed fowls have a 
superior flavor, and in many markets, such as that of New York, 
dressed milk-fed broilers bring a premium of five cents a pound. 

261. How Poultry Is Fattened. Hens or frying chickens are 
placed in small coops about thirty inches square and fed morn- 
ing, noon, and night. 

262. How Much to Feed Fattening Chickens. Fattening chick- 
ens are easily thrown off their feed; when once thrown off, they 
will not fatten well. Give just as much food as they will clean 
up in twenty minutes and then take away any left over. VDo 
not let them have so much food that they get sick of it. Keep 
their appetite keen. 

263. What to Feed. One part each of ground feed and two 
parts of buttermilk or sour skim milk give the best results. 
This makes a mixture of about the consistency of batter and 
must be fed from a trough. 

264. Feed Mixtures for Fattening Chickens: 

Corn meal 9.5 pounds 

Wheat middlings 9.0 potinds 

Red dog flour 8.3 pounds 

Meat meal 2.5 pounds 

Soybean meal 33 pounds 

Wheat middlings 33 pounds 

Corn meal : 34 pounds 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 103 

265. The following formulas are good mixtures for fattening 
hens : 

Corn meal 24 pounds 

Wheat middlings 6 pounds 

Ground oats 4 pounds 

Corn meal 2 pounds 

Wheat shorts 1 pound 

Ground oats 1 pound 

Buttermilk 8 pounds 

266. Market Grades of Fowls. In the market old hens are 
called fowls ; old male birds, roosters or cocks ; young chickens 
of y± to 2y 2 pounds, broilers; of 2*^ to 4 pounds, fryers; of 
4 to 8 pounds, roasters. 

267. How Live Poultry Is Shipped. Live poultry is shipped 
in standard-sized shipping crates which can be purchased in the 
market. 

268. How Eggs Are Shipped. Eggs are shipped in thirty- 
dozen case lots. 

269. To Whom Shipped. Eggs may be shipped to wholesale 
commission merchants, who are usually located in the large 
cities. 

270. Cost of Shipping. The cases will cost approximately 
thirty cents each for the case, flats, and fillers. The express 
costs will vary according to distance. The commission man will 
charge 5 per cent for selling. Eggs may be sold directly to 
consumers, clubs, hotels, restaurants, or city retail stores. This 
will save the commission man's charge of 5 per cent for selling. 

TO PRESERVE EGGS FOR WINTER USE 

271. Kind of Eggs to Preserve. Eggs for preserving purposes 
should be clean, fresh, not over three days old, and of absolutely 
sound shell, as cracked eggs are unfit. Infertile eggs are pre- 
ferred. These may be placed in the liquid each day if desired. 

272. Kind of Container to Use. A glazed earthen jar is prefer- 
able, though other containers, as galvanized or glass containers, 



% 



104 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

may be used. Do not use wood or any other material which may 
give off an odor to the liquid, as the eggs will absorb these 
odors and as a result will be given an objectionable taste. The 
container should be provided with a lid to prevent evaporation; 
or in case no lid is provided, a paper can be securely tied over 
the top to prevent evaporation of the solution. After thoroughly 
cleaning the container, scald it. 

273. How Large a Container to Secure. Eggs vary so in size 
that it is impossible to give, in each case, the size of the 
container needed. The following, however, will accommodate 
average-sized eggs; one-gallon capacity for 40 eggs, two-gallon 
for 80, three-gallon for 120, four-gallon for 160, five-gallon for 
200, ten-gallon for 400. 

274. Waterglass Method. Waterglass (sodium silicate) may 
be obtained at any drug store at a cost of about fifty cents a 
quart. If the stores do not have it, a request should be made 
to order a supply. 

275. How to Prepare the Waterglass Solution. Waterglass 
comes in bottles and is about the consistency of strained honey- 
Use one quart of the waterglass to nine quarts of clean boiled 
water. Mix thoroughly and allow to cool before pouring over 
the eggs. 

276. Testing the Eggs. Eggs should be candled to determine 
if they are perfectly fresh and that the shell is not cracked. Do 
not use thin-shelled eggs or those which are dirty. Do not wash 
them before placing in the container. To test these eggs, use 
the candling device sent with any incubator, any commercial 
candler which uses an electric bulb or lamp, or a home-made 
candler made for the purpose. 

Secure a box about the size of an ordinary shoe box, cut a 
hole at the end and one in the center of the side ; set the box 
on end and place the lamp in it. The hole in the top should 
be directly over the top of the lamp chimney and the hole in 
the side should be directly in front of the middle of the chimney. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 105 

This latter hole is the one to be used in candling-. Take this 
apparatus in a dark room, when, by holding the egg over the 
hole in the side of the box, the light from the lamp will be 
reflected through it. If the egg is fresh you will note a small 
air space about the size of a dime at the large end. If this cell 
is larger the egg is not fresh, as the size of this air space 
indicates the age. The balance of the egg should appear rather 
dark, with the central part the darkest, as this is the yolk and 
the light is not transmitted through it as freely as through the 
white. If there is a blind-check, you can detect the crack in 
candling. 

277. How to Place Eggs in the Container. Place the eggs in 
the container with small ends down, as this end is the stronger. 
Place layer on layer till the eggs are within about two inches 
of the top of the jar. Now pour over the waterglass liquid, 
completely filling the jar, so that the top row is covered about 
two inches deep. Cover tightly to prevent evaporation. 

278. Where to Place the Container. The container should be 
kept in a cool place, and where objectionable odors will not find 
their way to the jar. 

279. Quality of Preserved Eggs. Eggs preserved by the 
waterglass method may be used in any form for the table and 
for cooking, except for poaching. They may be scrambled, 
boiled, and fried. In boiling it is best to puncture with a pin 
the large end of the egg so as to allow the air from within, 
when heated, to pass out, and thus prevent breakage. In taking 
eggs out of the solution, wash the jelly-like material off with 
clean cold water. Eggs may be taken out just as they are 
needed. Always remove them from the jar with clean hands. 



CHAPTER XX 
DIARRHEA IN POULTRY 

280. Cause of Diarrhea in Baby Chicks. Diarrhea in baby 
chicks may be due to allowing them to become chilled, as is 
often the case in raising chicks with a brooder. Fifteen minutes 
of exposure to severe cold while quite young may result in fatal 
diarrhea and the loss of many birds. When more feed is given 
than the birds will eat quickly, it often spoils and causes 
diarrhea. Stale milk and moldy feed are sources of trouble. 
Unsanitary utensils are dangerous ; the water and milk con- 
tainers must be cleaned out once a day. This is done best by 
using a brush or even the hand to rub the walls and the bottom 
of the container. 

281. Contagious Diarrhea of Baby Chicks. A contagious 
diarrhea is due to a germ. This form affects the baby chicks 
as soon as they are hatched, and in the first week often aTsfmany 
as 80 per cent of them contract the disease and die. 

282. How Chicks Become Infected. The baby chicks become 
infected by eating or drinking contaminated feed and water, or 
the hen that lays the egg may have an ovary that is diseased. 
A hen with an ovary infected with the germ of white diarrhea 
will lay eggs containing the germs and the baby chick will be 
infected when hatched. 

283. How to Tell When Baby Chicks Have White Diarrhea. 
The disease appears within two or three days after hatching 
and heavy losses occur the first week. The bird shows the fol- 
lowing signs of the disease: drooping wings, ruffled feathers, 
sleepy appearance, little or no appetite, abdominal yolk not 
properly absorbed, a whitish or whitish-brown frothy discharge 
from the bowel which adheres to the vent fluff, eyes closed part 
of the time, and a lack of interest in the surroundings. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising r 107 

284. What to Do for White Diarrhea. Keep the hover and 
run thoroughly clean. Disinfect once a week with a 4 per cent 
solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Give 
the birds, in the drinking water, one thirty-grain tablet of 
sulphocarbolate compound. Each thirty-grain tablet should con- 
tain ten grains each of sulphocarbolate of sodium, sulphocar- 
bolate of calcium, and sulphocarbolate of zinc. Fresh butter- 
milk is an excellent remedy. 

285. Disposition of Chicks With White Diarrhea. All chicks 
that die should be burned. Toe punch all chicks with diarrhea 
and do not save them for breeders, but sell them for broilers 
as soon as they are old enough. 

286. Contagious Diarrhea Occurring at About Ten Days of 
Age. A contagious diarrhea, caused by an animal organism 
called the coccidium tenellum, affects chicks later than the 
bacillary white diarrhea described above and causes the greatest 
death rate at from ten days to two weeks of age. The symptoms 
are much the same as in white diarrhea and the treatment is 
similar. 

287. Diarrhea of Adult Fowls. Adult fowls suffer most from 
diarrhea due to contaminated water. Fowls may drink polluted 
water from a contaminated pool or the water pans may be 
allowed to become foul. 

288. What to Do for Diarrhea in Adult Fowls. Diarrhea of 
adult fowls yields to the sulphocarbolate compound treatment 
(284). The permanganate of potash treatment is cheap and is 
very useful (129). 

289. Fowl Cholera. Fowl cholera is a contagious disease. It 
is due to a germ. 

290. How to Tell Fowl Cholera. In severe forms of the dis- 
ease, the first signs may pass unobserved and the bird be found 
dead under the roost in the morning. If the disease is less 
severe, the first sign will be dullness and moping about. The 
bird will not eat ; the feathers are ruffled. The bird becomes 



Io8 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

prostrated, and the bowel discharges or droppings are of a 
yellowish-green color and semi-liquid. The comb is dark or 
even black, the bird walks with a swaying gait, trembles, and 
may even have convulsions. Most of the birds of the flock 
will die. 

291. How the Disease Is Spread. Birds may contract the dis- 
ease by coming in contact with other birds that have it. A 
bird sick of the disease may be introduced into the flock. A 
bird may be shipped in coops in which sick birds have been 
shipped. Birds may be placed in houses or runs where birds 
suffering with cholera have been kept. 

292. What to Do for Cholera. Give the sulphocarbolate com- 
pound (284) ; keep permanganate of potash in the water (129). 
Thoroughly clean and disinfect the premises with a 4 per cent 
solution of any standardized coal tar disinfectant dip having a 
coefficiency of at least one to five (1 :5). Burn or bury in lime 
all birds dead of cholera. 

293. Blackhead in Turkeys. There is a disease of turkeys 
called blackhead because the head and neck are supposed to 
turn black. 

294. How to Tell When Turkeys Have Blackhead. The 
turkey appears sick, mopes about, eats little or nothing at all. 
The wings droop, the feathers are ruffled, and the bird sits 
around much of the time. It has a thin, watery discharge from 
the bowels of a greenish-yellow color. The bird gradually 
becomes poor and usually dies in a week or two. 

295. Age at Which Turkeys Suffer Most. Turkeys fourteen 
to sixteen weeks of age are most likely to become affected and 
die. 

296. How Turkeys Contract Blackhead. Turkeys contract 
blackhead by running with hens that harbor in their intestinal 
tract the single-celled animal parasites that cause it, though 
the hens themselves do not develop the disease. Turkeys 
also contract the disease by running with turkeys that have 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 109 

chronic cases or by running on ground on which diseased 
turkeys have run before. 

297. What to Do for Blackhead. Give the sulphocarbolate 
compound (284) and remove the birds to a clean woods run. 
Many shady runs should be provided if one is to raise turkeys. 
An abundance of buttermilk and good wholesome feed should 
be given. 

298. How the Internal Organs Appear in a Turkey That Has 
Died of Blackhead. Open the turkey, and if it has died of black- 
head the liver will be spotted, that is, covered with small round 
spots of dead liver tissue. One of the blind pouches (caeca) 
will be greatly enlarged. 



CHAPTER XXI 

MITES, LICE, SCALY LEGS, AND FLEAS OF POULTRY * 

Note to Teacher : Have students study mounted specimens of para- 
sites, j 

299. What the Red Mite Looks Like. Red mites vary in size 
from one-fourth of a pin head to a pin head. They vary in 
color from almost white to bluish-red and red. 

300. Where Mites Are Found. Mites are found on the under 
side of the perch poles and in the cracks where the perch poles 
rest upon the support. 

301. When Mites Attack the Fowls. The mites attack the 
fowls at night and leave them before morning, locating them- 
selves on the under side of the perch poles. 

302. Effect Upon the Birds. Mites suck the blood and where 
they are numerous they will kill young birds as well as old ones. 
They are often found in the brooding coop and in nests of sit- 
ting hens. In birds that are badly infested, the comb becomes 
pale and the bird weakens and finally dies. 

303. How Mites Multiply. Mites multiply by laying their 
eggs in the cracks of the perch poles, on droppings boards, and 
even in nests. They multiply very rapidly in hot weather. 

304. How to Tell When Birds Are Infested. Examine the 
under part of the perch poles, and if mites are present they will 
be observed in small clusters. There will be noticed white fuzzy 
material in the cracks. This material is the shed skins or molts 
of the young mites. 

305. What to Do to Rid the Birds of Mites. Thoroughly 
clean the droppings boards, floor, and nests and sweep down 



* For reference, see Poultry Diseases, published by The Ameriean Jour- 
nal of Veterinary Medicine, Chicago, 111. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising III 

the walls, then spray the house thoroughly with a 4 per cent 
solution of some disinfectant clip of a coefficiency of at least 
five. Saturate the perch poles, on all sides and at the places 
where they rest on their supports, and the wall for a con- 
siderable space around with kerosene, carbolineum, or gasoline. 
Repeat this once every day till the mites disappear. Spray the 
house once a week till it is certain that no mites lurk around. 

306. Lice of Poultry. There are one or more kinds of lice 
for each kind of poultry. 

307. What the Louse Looks Like. The louse is light in color 
and rather thin and najow. It is about five or six times as 
large as a full-grown mite and can be seen running around next 
to the skin of an infested hen. 

308. How to Tell When Hens Are Infested With Lice. Catch 
the hen and push the feathers back the wrong way. Examine 
in the region of the vent and body fluff. If lice are present 
they will be observed. 

309. Where Lice Are Found. When lice are present, they are 
always found on the birds unless brushed off accidentally. 

310. How Lice Multiply. Lice multiply by laying eggs and 
cementing them to the feathers. Here they hatch in a few days 
and then soon develop into the adult stage, to multiply again. 
The eggs are laid in clusters and can often be seen on the web 
of the feathers, especially in the region of the vent. 

311. How to Treat Hens With Lice. Birds with lice should 
be dusted with lice powder containing at least one-fourth of one 
per cent of free nicotine. This louse powder can be made as 
follows : Take two pounds of tobacco stems or leaves and place 
in a pan and cover with water. Boil for thirty minutes and pour 
off the liquid. Boil down this liquid to about one-half of a tea- 
cup. Put this into a half teacup of crude carbolic acid and 
add an equal amount of gasoline. To this mixture add plaster 
of Paris till the plaster is only slightly moist and pass the entire 
amount through a fly screen sieve. Use at once. This quantity 



H2 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

will take about two quarts of plaster. If "Black Leaf 40" can 
be secured or any pure nicotine such as is used by florists, add 
fifty drops to four ounces of gasoline and mix with plaster of 
Paris, as above, and pass through a fly screen. This latter makes 
a much better mixture and will take about one quart of plaster. 
Commercial insect powder can be purchased, but one should 
make sure that it contains at least one-fourth of one per cent 
of free nicotine. 

312. Scaly Leg. Scaly leg is due to a scab-producing parasite. 

313. Appearance of Scaly Leg. In scaly leg the affected shank 
is covered with thick scales. The parasites are found under these 
scales where they multiply. 

314. How Scaly Leg Spreads. Scaly leg spreads from the 
introduction of an affected bird into the flock or from the 
placing of birds in quarters where scaly leg birds have been 
kept. 

315. What to Do for Scaly Leg. Saturate the shank once 
every ten days with kerosene. Saturate the perch poles with 
kerosene or carbolineum. 

316. Fleas of Chickens. The most common flea is the stick- 
tight flea. 

317. How the Sticktight Flea Attacks the Bird. The stick- 
tight flea attaches itself to the skin of the head and upper part 
of the neck. 

318. How the Sticktight Flea Multiplies. The sticktight flea 
multiplies by laying eggs which fall off and hatch on the ground. 
Sandy localities furnish the most favorable place for the multi- 
plication of this flea. 

319. What to Do for Birds Infested With the Sticktight Flea. 
Dip the neck in kerosene. Do not get the kerosene in the eyes 
of the bird. Lard mixed with a small amount of sulphur may 
be applied to the infested parts. 



CHAPTER XXII 
WORMS INFESTING POULTRY 

320. Internal Parasites. Most of the internal parasites are 
worms. Small numbers of worms do not do any noticeable 
injury, but large numbers interfere with the health of the fowls 
and sometimes cause death. 

321. The Gapeworm. The gapew 7 orm, as it is taken from the 
wind pipe of an affected bird, is about one inch long, round in 
shape, and forked at the head end. The small worm is the 
male and the large worm the female. 

322. Injury Done by Gapeworms. The gapeworms hold on 
to the mucous membrane lining of the windpipe or trachea and 
as they grow in size gradually close the opening so that it is 
difficult for the bird to breathe. As soon as sufficient obstruc- 
tion takes place, the bird dies for lack of oxygen (83). The 
gapeworms also suck blood. 

323. How the Worms Multiply and Spread. The female pro- 
duces eggs, which are scattered over the ground. Other birds 
eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water be- 
come infested. The worms at this stage are very small and 
burrow through into the windpipe, where they accumulate in 
clusters and gradually grow as described above. 

324. How to Prevent the Spread of Gapeworms. Be sure 
that every gapeworm is destroyed by burning. 

325. How to Treat the Affected Bird. Double a horse hair, 
or strip all the barbs off a feather except the tip, and pass it 
down the windpipe (trachea) as far as possible and withdraw it, 

.at the same time giving a twist as you do so. Usually the worm 
will be brought out. 

326. Tapeworms of Chickens. There are several varieties of 
tapeworms that infest the small intestine of the fowl. 



i 14 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

327. Structure of Tapeworms. The tapeworm consists of a 
head, neck, and body. The head is slightly larger than the neck 
and is provided with suckers, and, in some varieties, with small 
hooks with which it holds on to the intestinal wall. The neck 
in some varieties is short and in others it is long. The seg- 
ments which make up the body grow from the lower end. Each 
segment is a complete individual within itself, fertilizing itself, 
obtaining its own food, and maturing hundreds of eggs. As 
fast as the segments at the end of the worm are filled with 
fully developed eggs, they detach themselves and pass out to 
contaminate the feed and water consumed by other fowls, 
thereby infesting them. The tapeworm has no digestive tract. 
It lives by absorbing the digested nutrients of the intestines in 
which it grows. 

328. Size of Tapeworms. Tapeworms of fowls vary in size 
from those just large enough to be seen to worms three or four 
inches in length and an eighth to one-fourth of an inch wide. 

329. The Intermediate Host. Some of the tapeworms pass a 
part of their life in other parasites or animals ; among these 
intermediate hosts are house flies, snails, and earth worms. The 
fowls devouring these worms and insects containing the larvae 
become infested. 

330. Treatment of Birds Infested With Tapeworms. To each 
fifty birds use one-half* pound di finely chopped tobacco stems. 
Steep the tobacco in hot water for two hours and mix with 
mash. Two doses should be given two days apart. The treat- 
ment should be administered in the morning on an empty crop 
and no feed should be given during the day of the treatment. 
The birds treated should be moved to houses and yards free 
from the infestation. The yard can be disinfected by using one 
gallon, one to one thousand bichloride of mercury, to each ten 
square feet of space. The houses should be thoroughly cleaned 
and the same solution used in them as on the ground. 

331. Effect of Large Numbers of Tapeworms Upon the Bird. 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 115 

Tapeworms rob the bird of food nutrients. The bird becomes 
unthrifty, the feathers are ruffled, it loses flesh, does not eat, 
has a deranged digestion. Growing birds are stunted, while 
laying hens fall off in their yield of eggs. 

332. The Large Round Worm. The large worm infests the 
small intestine. It is about two inches long and white in color. 

333. How the Large Round Worms Multiply. The large round 
worms multiply by laying eggs which pass out with the drop- 
pings. The feed and water become soiled and other birds eat 
this soiled feed and become infested. 

334. Conditions Produced and Treatment. The conditions pro- 
duced are similar to those observed for tapeworms (331) and the 
treatment should be the same (330). 

335. The Small Round Worm. The small round worm is found 
in the blind pouches (caeca). Large numbers of them will 
produce similar symptoms to those produced by other worms 
(331). This worm is round in shape and white in color. Its 
method of multiplication is the same as that of the large round 
worm (332). The treatment should be similar to that for tape- 
worms (330). 



CHAPTER XXIII 

POULTRY AS AN IMPORTANT ENTERPRISE 
ON THE FARM 

336. Importance. The growth of poultry and egg production 
on business lines in the United States during the past two 
decades has been remarkable. No class of live stock is so uni- 
versally raised as poultry. Eggs are very high in the life- 
giving principal, vitamine, and are being used more and more 
in view of the high price of other meat-food products. The 
products of poultry rank in value next to those of the diary 
or to the animals slaughtered for food. About one-sixth of the 
total value of animal products in the United States is credited 
to poultry. The demand for poultry and ^eggs has increased 
much more rapidly than the supply. With the close applica- 
tion of business methods in marketing farm products, and the 
keeping of more poultry on a single farm or marketing through 
clubs, the excess of better poultry products can be put on the 
market to an advantage. 

337. Opportunities. Poultry raising as a department of the 
farm can be successfully carried on in connection with orchards, 
as in fruit growing; in cultivated lands, as in corn or cotton, or 
in fields where other large plants are grown ; and in connection 
with pastures. Poultry have been turned into vineyards, after 
the crop is harvested and until next year's blooming time. In 
these vineyards, the chickens devour bugs and other insects 
which prey upon the bushes, trees, and plants. Many orchard- 
men keep chickens in their orchards, in small flocks, to consume 
the worms and other insects that destroy the fruit. Usually 
these flocks consist of about twenty-five birds, or about five 
birds per acre. Often portable houses are provided for chickens 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising lij 

in fields where the grain has been removed. The birds devour 
the insect life, manure the ground, and protect the next year's 
crop by destroying insect life, which would have otherwise 
hibernated to do damage the following year. One hundred hens 
will void one and one-half tons of droppings a year. Each ton 
of poultry fertilizer is worth, at the present price, $25.00. 

338. Poultry in Connection With Dairying. Poultry and dairy- 
ing go hand in hand. In a dairy there is usually much waste 
skim milk, and, at times, buttermilk. Milk makes quick growth 
in chicks. Recently the North Carolina Experiment Station 
demonstrated that chicks fed ground feed, mixed with milk, 
made 30 per cent greater growths than other flocks fed the 
same ground feed without milk. The Indiana Experiment 
Station recently showed that hens fed *ground feed and grain 
and no milk or animal food laid an average of 59.35 eggs per 
hen per year, while other flocks fed the same ground feed and 
grain and milk averaged 183.5 eggs per hen per year. 

339. Utilization of Waste. The waste of foods from the table 
and kitchen is often sufficient to keep a dozen hens. On tfye 
average hundred-acre farm there is enough waste in yards and 
around the barn and nearby fields to more than supply one-half 
the food for fifty hens. 

340. Little Capital Required on the Farm. On the farm 
poultry raising can be begun with little capital. An old build- 
ing may be remodeled at a small cost, or much of the framing 
material can be secured from the farm woodyard, and oftentimes 
logs may be hauled to nearby sawmills and sawed into boards 
for the construction of poultry houses. The flock can be orig- 
inated in the fall by buying some good birds, or baby chicks 
may be purchased in the spring and a flock of pullets be raised 
during the summer months. If the farm has a flock of mongrels, 
eggs from pure-bred flocks may be purchased during March and 
April and a flock of pullets raised for the next year's breeding 
and egg production. In this case the cockerels, being pure bred, 



Ii8 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

can be sold at more than food prices as breeders, the culls being 
used on the family table. 

341. Relation of Profit and Investment. There is no branch 
of live stock that gives such quick returns as poultry. Pullets 
hatched in the spring, if properly cared for and fed, will be in 
full laying condition in six or seven months and, if properly 
housed and fed, will lay all winter when eggs are high-priced. 
Poultry raising is a branch of live stock production that can be 
adapted both to men and women or to boys and girls. Modern 
facilities make marketing easy. According to the 1910 census, 
the average income from poultry from each farm in the United 
States was $92.39. It is no doubt much more now. There is 
no reason why several hundred dollars cannot be made on every 
farm each year from poultry, in addition to the supply of a 
part of the meat food for the table and clothing and groceries 
for the family, since eggs and poultry are traded at the country 
store for these commodities. The New Jersey Experiment 
Station has shown that the farm income from poultry for capital 
invested and labor given was greater than for dairy, truck, or 
general farming. 

342. Requirements for Success. The requirements for success 
may be summed up in a few words, as follows : the culling of 
the flock each year ; the keeping of profitable hens only ; the 
keeping of vigorous males with good capacity ; proper houses, 
care, feed, and range ; the hatching of pullets at the right time 
of the year for winter laying. 

343. Utilization and Distribution of Labor on the Farm. Small 
flocks can be kept with very little extra labor by so arranging 
the poultry work as to have it come in the list of chores. Where 
small flocks are kept, hatching can be done with the hen by 
using the combination sitting and brooding coop, so that the 
hen needs attention but once a day while hatching and three 
times a day while brooding. The chicks, after they are weaned 
and turned on range, should be given dry mash in an outdoor 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 119 

mash hopper and grain and water three times a day, and the 
laying- and breeding stock should receive like attention, using 
in this manner chore time in which to do the poultry work. 
This department of the farm will give the largest return for 
the time spent on it. Where poultry raising constitutes a main 
department of the farm more time will need to be apportioned 
for it, but if correctly planned and carried out, it will pay a 
good profit. 

344. Tenant and Landlord's Shares Where Poultry Are Raised 
in Partnership. From data collected by the North Carolina 
Experiment Station, the following division will be about equita- 
ble : In cases where the landlord furnishes all the feed, he is 
entitled to 50 per cent of the returns when all the feed is pur- 
chased in the market. In cases where the landlord furnishes 
the land, buildings, equipment, and pays the taxes and other 
land costs, he is entitled to 25 per cent of the returns ; where 
the tenant furnishes the breeding stock and all the labor, he 
is entitled to 25 per cent of the returns. Where the landlord 
and tenant pay equally for the feed and other supplies are fur- 
nished as above outlined, then they should share equally the 
returns from the sale of eggs, birds, and the young stock. 

345. Labor and Return of a Hundred Hens as Compared to 
a Family Cow. Warren estimates that the amount of labor 
required to care for a family cow would amount to a man's 
work for fifteen days, and a horse's for two days. Elliot and 
Brown estimate that the returns from this one cow would be 
approximately $70.60. The North Carolina Experiment Station 
has found that 100 hens will require about eighteen days' farm 
labor a year and two horse days, and should bring in a net 
revenue of $1.80 per hen, or $180.00. It requires approximately 
nine pounds of feed and 0.12 of an hour's labor to produce a 
dozen eggs. Two hundred to two hundred and fifty hens can 
be kept in one" flock with very little more labor than a hundred 
hens. The following summary is taken from the records of 
the North Carolina Experiment Station: 



120 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

A Small Commercial Flock Owned by J. E. 

Average number of hens for the year 233 

Total cost of feed for the year $ 598.51 

Incidental expenses for the year 38.95 

There were laid during the year 32,877 eggs 

The total gross receipts for the year were $1,159.79 

Twenty days' labor at $2.50 per day would be 50.00 

The house and equipment cost - 250.00 

Six per cent for deterioration would make 15.00 

The gross income per hen was 4.97 

The interest at six per cent*on money invested in feed was.... 35.88 

The net income per hen was - 1.80 



CHAPTER XXIV 

SUGGESTIONS FOR PROJECTS AND LABORATORY 

EXERCISES 

Suggestions for Project Study- 
Note to the Teacher : These are mere suggestions. It is intended 
that the teacher shall make the detail outlines to suit local conditions. 

Two Major Projects (160 Hours Each) 

1. To raise twelve pullets. 

Secure 4 hens. 

Make combination sitting and brooding coops (193). 

Select suitable eggs (197). 

Feeding and care (232). 

Select for vigor (53). 

Select for mating the following year (47-53). 

2. To care for the home flock. 

Cull hens (61-79). 

Reconstruct house or construct new one (89-106). 

Construct poultry house equipment (98-106). 

If in the country, birds on range. - 

If on town lot, fences and fencing (107-123). 

Rotation in green feed (158). 

Feeds and feeding (138-158). 

Grading and marketing eggs (173-188). 

Project earning report for the year 19 — . 

Time covered by project, to . 

Inventories : 

Beginning of project „ $ 

End of project .». $ 

Paid self for labor, hours at cts. per hour, $ . 

of which $ was cash. 

Expenditures and .receipts : 

Total expenses (inventory, all labor, etc.)--- $ 

Total receipts (inventory, prizes, etc.) $ 

Net profit $ 

Gross profit, including amount paid self for 

labor $ — 

of which $ was cash, as above 

stated. 
Chief source of gain . 



122 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

A Demonstration Project 

(Double Major if Done by Student at School Requiring 
Two Years to Complete) 

3. School project showing results of crossbreeding (60). 

Two Minor Projects (80 Hours Each) 

4. To raise ten capons. 

Select suitable cockerels as to age, size, and breed. 
Caponizing. 
Care and feeding. 
Fattening. 
Minor No. 4 can be used in conjunction with Major No. 1. 

5. To raise sufficient mangels, collards, or cabbage for the flock 
for winter feed (158). Estimate one-half pound green feed for 
twenty-five birds per day for the months when no green feed 
can be had from the field. 

Minor No. 5 can be used in conjunction with Major No. 2. 

Laboratory Practice 

The following suggestions for additional laboratory exercises 
are given to meet the need where more time can be devoted to 
poultry study than that indicated in the body of the text. 

The number following each topic refers to the reference text- 
book in which the student should look up the subject. 

a. before the number indicates Poultry Culture, Sanitation and 

Hygiene. 

b. before the number indicates American Standard of Perfection. 

c. before the number indicates Poultry Diseases. 

d. before the number indicates Anatomy of the Domestic fowl. 
Where no letter is given the reference is to this text. 

1. Clean and spray house. Mix spray and study spray pumps (c-3). 

2. Visit poultry show. Study breeds and quality of individual birds 

and compare same breeds with your birds (b-all). 

3. Hold school or inter-school poultry and egg show (a-25, 27). 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 123 

4. Harvest litter and other poultry materials as feed. 

5. Cull and market non-producing hens from nearby flock (61-80). 

6. Cull young stock of your own or nearby flock (45-53). 

7. Dig and store root crops (158). 

8. Feeding a flock for egg production (170-171). 

9. Mate up breeding pen (45-50). 

10. Study incubator and make drawings of same (213-218). 

11. Study hover and make drawing of same (a-24). 

12. Construct nests (104). 

13. Make insect powder and dust hens (311). 

14. Mix feeds for flock (170-171). 

15. Candle and grade market eggs (185-188). 

16. Visit flock. Each student should compare good birds of his breed 

with those of others (b-all). 

17. Study parts of hard-boiled egg (207). 

18. Fattening, killing, picking, and trussing (a-27 and 264). 

19. Caponizing (a-25). 

20. .Draw plan for colony house : make list of material and estimate 

cost (a-6), (92 to 100). 

21. Make outdoor mash hopper (256-257). 

22. Make combination sitting and brooding coop (192-194). 

23. Make droppings box and scrape (105-106). 

24. Study egg cases, egg cartons, shipping crates for live birds, and 

other equipment (a-25). 

25. Make feeding boards and hoppers for small chicks (237). 

26. Remodeling a nearby poultry house (91). 

27. Dissect and study digestion and egg-forming organs of a hen 

(d-175), (135). 

28. Judging fowls (b-all). 

29. Records and accounting (a-28). 

30. A study of diseases, such as sorehead, roup, and blackhead (125, 

280, 299, 301, 320). 

31. To put up a fence correctly (119-120). 

32. To lay paper and shingle. 

Skills to Be Verified and Judged by the Teacher 

1. To catch and hold a fowl correctly. 

2. To take a broody hen from the nest and place her in a broody 

coop. 

3. To handle small chicks, mark them for identification, and put on 

leg bands. 

4. To enter and work in a house or pen without disturbing the fowls. 

5. To clean and disinfect drinking utensils. 

6. To distinguish sexes at an early age. 

7. To tell a pullet from a hen. 

8. To identify the common breeds. 

9. To estimate the weights of fowls. 

10. To evaluate and identify the common feeds. 

11. To keep a correct egg and feed account. 



124 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

12. To test eggs incubating for fertility. 

13. To put down eggs for winter use. 

14. To mark eggs for identification. 

Diary of Andy Jackson, Junior Poultry Keeper, 
West Raleigh, January, 1919 

Dr. Cr. 

Feb. 1. Bought from Exp. Station, 50 S. C. Rhode 

Island \<vd eggs $ 6.00 

Left for incubation at station. 
7. Visited and tested eggs and found 5 infer- 
tile. 

14. Culled out 2 more eggs. 

21. 40 eggs hatched. 

22. Borrowed 3 broody hens from Mother. 

23. Paid for incubating and carrying chick- 

ens 1.50 

24. Mixed chick feed in sour milk. 

Cost of feed 1.50 

Made 2 water fountains .50 

Made 3 coops 2.00 

March 1. Bought 50 more S. C. Rhode Island Red 

eggs 6.00 

Left to be incubated. 

Bought feed 5.00 

21. 35 eggs hatched. Paid for incubating 1.50 

Cleaned and painted coop with carbolineum .50 

Moved first lot to alfalfa range. 

Installed second lot in coop. 
April 1. Built 2 colony houses 5.00 

15. Separated cockerels from pullets, 

May 1. Caponized 20 cockerels, borrowed instru- 
ments. 
Nov. * 1. First pullet laid egg. 
Jan. 1. Sold IS capons, weight 8 pounds each, at 

50 cts. pound $ 60.00 

Inventory: 20 pullets at $2.00 each 40.00 

5 cockerels to sell as breeders at $3.00 each 15.00 



$ 29.50 $115.00 
Profit for year's venture, if.S5.50. 



CHAPTER XXV 

A FEW OF THE MORE COMMON QUESTIONS THAT 
MAY BE USED FOR STUDY AND REVIEW 

CHAPTER I 

1. What are the principal purposes for which poultry is kept? 

2. Has America been prominent in the development of the world's poul- 
tiy? Name some breeds developed in America. 

3. From what sources docs the supply of poultry and poultry products 
of the large cities come? 

4. At what time of year are the bulk of the broilers raised? 

5. What means are employed to assure an even supply of broilers to 
city people the year round ? 

6. How much money do the poultry products of each year represent? 

7. Are there any means provided for fattening, dressing, and refriger- 
ating poultry on a large scale? Discuss fully. 

8. When thousands of cases of eggs accumulate at the large storing 
and distributing centers, what is the most economical way of shipping to* 
other large consuming centers? 

9. What class of people consume most of the water fowls and where 
are there large duck farms? 

10. What country holds the record for the largest number of eggs laid 
by a single hen in a year? How does America rank? 

CHAPTER IT 

11. Is there any difference in the structure of the feathers of the 
various plumage parts of the male bird? Discuss this difference. 

12. Discuss the different types of combs and examine 'the birds of the 
different breeds you have in the flocks, noting the kind of combs each 
breed has. 

CHAPTER ITT 

13. What is meant by standard-lire d fowls? 

14. Who determines which fowls shall be recognized as standard? 

15. What is the American Standard of Perfection? 



126 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

16. If you are told that a certain bird is of the American class and 
that it is a Barred Plymouth Rock, which of these words indicate class, 
which breed, and which variety, and what is meant by class, breed, and 
variety? 

17. Name some of the fowls which are most popular and give a reason 
why these birds and not others are prominent. 

CHAPTER IV 

18. What are the various purposes for which birds are kept? What 
reason can you assign for the non-combination of all these qualities in 
one breed? 

19. Which breeds are bred most for high egg production? Are these 
birds the most economical? Give reasons for your answer. 

20. Is high, egg production transmitted by both male and female fowls? 
What proof have you for your answer? 

21. Name the best meat breed and give reason for your answer. 

22. Which are the most common utility birds and why? What is a 
utility bird? 

23. In selecting a male for breeding, name some of the points that 
denote good vigor. What are some of the points that denote poor vigor? 

24. What are some of the indications of a good hen for breeding 
purposes? 

25. If you have a flock of pure-bred birds but the average number of 
eggs produced is below a hundred, how would you go about raising 
the average of the flock from year to year? 

26. What are the principal objects of poultry breeding on the farm? 

27. If you are going to mate birds and the hens have been running 
with males from which you do not want chicks, how long will you have 
to wait after making the new mating before you save eggs for hatching? 
If hens have not been mated, how long will you have to wait? 

28. If you cross a Leghorn male on Brahma hens, what will be the 
result of the crossing? Is this crossing advisable? Give reason for your 
answer. 

CHAPTER V 

29. At what time of year should hens be culled? Give reason for your 
answer. 

30. If you are culling hens in August and one hen has old plumage, 
another is in full molt, and a third has an entirely new coat of feathers, 
how would you rate them as to high egg production, — that is, which 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 127 

would be the highest producer, which next highest, and which the 
poorest? Would you sell any for food, and if so, which ones? 

31. What are some of the signs of a poor producer? of a high pro 
ducer ? 

32. If a Single-Comb White Leghorn has a bleached beak and shanks 
at least how many eggs has she produced? 

33. Why does the abdomen enlarge as a hen comes into laying? If 
a hen measures four fingers in capacity and three fingers in pubic span 
about how many eggs should she lay? 

34. W r hat is the appearance of the comb and wattles of a laying hen? 
of one not laying? 

35. If one pullet begins to lay at five months of age and another at 
eight months of age, estimating egg production from November 1 to 
November 1, which will lay the greater number? 

36. What is a vacational molter? 

CHAPTER VI 

37. What will be the effect upon the birds if kept in a house insuffi- 
ciently ventilated? Give reason for answer. 

38. What is carbon dioxide? What will happen if the body does not 
get rid of it? 

39. What method of ventilation will give the purest air? Why? 

CHAPTER VII 

40. What changes would you make in remodeling a house where the 
roof leaks; the ground is lower than the outside ground; there are no 
ventilating openings ; the house is not battened ; has cracks on all sides 
and faces the north? 

41. Describe the different kinds of floors that can be used in con 
structing a new poultry house. Which is the most durable? 

42. What is meant by an open-front house? 

43. W T hy should the perch poles be loose? 

44. WTiat advantage is the water rack? 

45. How many feet of perch pole space will you need for fifty birds ? 

CHAPTER VIII 

46. Name the poultry house equipment and tell what advantage is it 
to have a house fully equipped. 

47. What advantage is it to have a grain storage bin that holds 100 
pounds? 



128 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 



CHAPTER IX 

48. What makes the most durable post? Why? 

49. How can you make a wood post more durable? 

50. A post hole was dug thirty inches deep, the post put in and 
hurriedly filled in with dirt and tamped thoroughly on top. It was 
found that the post was loose. To what was the looseness due? 

51. What kind of poultry wire is the most durable? 

52. How would you handle poultry on a town lot? 



CHAPTER X 

53. What disease is likely to appear among your flock in the fall? 

54. A bird is poor in flesh, has an offensive discharge from the nose, 
a swelling below the eye, and feathers ruffled. What is likely to be 
the disease? Give the treatment. 

55. A bird has sores on its comb, face, and wattles. What is the 
disease and treatment? 

56. Among the birds that have a discharge from the nose there are 
found some birds having sores in the mouth, with an accumulation of 
cheesy material. Name the disease and treatment. 

CHAPTER XI 

57. What is the name of the storage reservoir at the base of the neck 
where the feed is stored? (This is noted after a bird eats a full meal.) 

58. In opening a fowl two long blind pouches are found. What is 
the name of these pouches? 

59. A loop of the intestine has lodged between it a long whitish gland. 
What is the name of this gland? 

60. In examining the internal organs there is found a large, round, 
thick-walled structure containing feed and grit. What is the name of 
this organ? A small organ lying close to the liver is observed. What 
is its name? 

CHAPTER XII 

61. Ohio Bulletin No. 291 reports an experiment on the value of range 
for hens. One of the trials gave the following results for a period of 
882 days : 



Mortality. 

Confined 23.23 1 \ 

On range 15.5395 



Cost of 




Value of 


Feed 


Eggs 


Eggs 


Per Hen. 


Per Hen. 


Per Hen. 


$1.96 


241.1 


$4.22 


1.97 


278.3 


4.85 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 129 

What was the difference between the value of the eggs on range and 
confined? How much would this amount to in a flock of fifty hens? 
How much range should be provided for fifty hens? Suppose you were 
to consider the difference in the value of the eggs produced as rent for 
the range, would this be a satisfactory rent for the land? From the 
table given, what other advantage do you see in the range? 

62. What is the relative value of meat scrap, fish scrap, and skim 
milk for laying hens? (See Purdue University Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin 182.) 

63. From the results of experiments, would it pay better to feed 
buttermilk to poultry or to hogs? 

64. In what sections of the United States were prices of poultry and 
poultry products highest for the ten years' average from 1902-1911? In 
which states highest? (See Warren's Farm Management, p. 576.) 

65. What evidence can you find that pure-bred poultry pays better 
than mongrels or crosses? 

66. What are the three nutrients required in poultry feeds? 

67. Why is it necessary to feed mash in addition to grain feed? 

68. How do peanut meal and soybean meal rank as poultry feeds? 

69. What is likely to be the result if you feed 30 per cent of velvet 
bean meal in mash? 

70. If spoilt table scraps are fed to chicks, what is likely to be the 
result? Suppose the table scraps are fresh: what will be the result? 

71. If you raise mangels for winter feed, when should they be planted, 
when harvested, and how kept till winter? 

CHAPTER XIII 

72. Hens have diarrhea with a greenish-yellow discharge; in looking 
around the place foul water containers are found. What effect, if any, 
might this have upon the health of the birds? 

73. A flock of birds are fed irregularly, sometimes at six o'clock in 
the morning, at other times at nine, at other times, not at all. They 
are given similar treatment in the evening. What effect will this have 
on egg production? Note the behavior of a flock about feeding time. 

74. Why is it necessary to feed mash with grain feed? 

75. If hens are on range on a farm, will they get feed that will take 
the place of the meat scrap of the mash? What is it? 

76. If birds are underfed, what effect will it have upon their laying? 

77. Name the grains used for scratch feed ; the feeds used for mash. 



130 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

CHAPTER XIV 

78. How much money is estimated to be lost each year from the care- 
less handling of eggs? Where does most of this loss occur? What can 
be done to prevent it? 

79. In flocks where you do not want to save eggs for hatching, is 
there any advantage in not having males with the hens? 

80. What is the simple method of grading eggs for market? 

81. Cases of what size are most economical for handling eggs? 

82. What is the danger of hauling eggs in a farm wagon over rough 
roads? 

83. What is the best way of shipping eggs for hatching? 

84. What is meant by blind checks, checks, dents, and leakers? 

85. An egg under the candler shows an air cell the size of a dime : of 
what age is the egg? Another shows an air cell as large as a quar- 
ter: of what age is this egg? 

86. What is the advantage of marketing eggs in clubs? 

CHAPTER XV 

87. Chicks are hatched by an incubator: is this natural or artificial 
incubation ? 

88. What are the advantages of the combination sitting and brooding 
coop on the farm? 

CHAPTER XVI 

89. Eggs for hatching were separated intc two lots : in one were 
uniform, well-shaped, large eggs ; in the other were round, long, and 
thin-shelled eggs ; others with ridges around them, under-sized, some 
abnormally large and some short. Which group is best for hatching 
purposes? 

90. John Smith has some eggs he has been saving for hatching; he 
has some broody hens on the laying nests ; he collects the eggs every 
day, sometimes every two days, and the eggs are twenty-five days old 
and have been kept in a warm room. Are these eggs suitable for use 
as setting eggs? s 

91. If you want to raise fifty pullets, and estimate that half of the 
chicks raised will be pullets, how many eggs will you need to set to. 
produce the required number? 

92. You wish Leghorn pullets to begin laying in the fall when eggs 
are high-priced. When should you hatch the chicks to produce these 
fall and winter laying pullets? 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 131 

93. You have two hens that want to sit, — one a small hen like a Leg- 
horn, another a large, well- feathered hen. Which will make the best 
sitter and mother? 

94. What are the signs that tell you when a hen wants to sit? 

95. What are the different parts of an egg and where is each part 
formed ? 

96. In candling eggs, on the fifth day one egg appears clear and 
another looks as if a spider were in the center : tell about each egg. 
On the sixteenth day in candling, the air cell is large but clouded and 
the dark mass within is not quite so large as in another egg which 
has a clear, large air cell : tell about each of these. 

97. Can you expect as large a hatch with an incubator as with a 
hen? 

CHAPTER XVII 

98. If you put two hundred eggs in an incubator, how many chicks 
should you expect? 

99. Describe the construction of an incubator.. How do you prepare 
the machine for operation and at what temperature should it be run? 

100. Mrs. Jones ran her incubator with even temperature but did not 
turn the eggs during incubation: will any of the eggs hatch? 

101. You are going to run a two-hundred-egg incubator and produce 
three consecutive hatches. What size brooder and how many brooders 
will you need? 

CHAPTER XVIII 

102. When should the chick receive the first feed and why? 

103. Mr. Smith wishes to grow his Rhode Island Red chickens to 1.5 
or 2 pounds weight by the end of eight weeks, but has nothing but corn, 
oats, and wheat screenings to feed them from the time of hatching : is 
it necessary for him to secure other feeds to make this forced growth, 
and if so, what mixture do you recommend? 

104. A small flock of chicks were fed and then allowed to stay out- 
side the hover in cold weather for an hour, becoming chilled : what was 
the probable result? 

105. If chicks are allowed to eat feed that has lain around and become 
sour, what is likely to be the .result? 

106. Is grit necessary, and if so, why? 

107. What kind of feed will you give to young poults? goslings? 
ducks? 



132 The Essentials of Poultry Raising 

CHAPTER XIX 

108. What is the usual length of time of fattening fowls for market? 

109. Is there any advantage in feeding fattening birds buttermilk? 

110. Mr. Brown began fattening his broilers by giving them an extra 
amount of feed, allowing a surplus to lie in the trough before the birds 
at all times : his birds were off feed and did not make satisfactory gains. 
Was there anything wrong with his method of feeding? 

111. How is live poultry shipped to market? 

112. How are market eggs prepared for shipping and what are the 
costs of marketing? 

113. Is there any advantage in preserving eggs for home winter use? 

CHAPTER XX 

114. What are some of the most common causes of diarrhea in chicks? 

115. What is white diarrhea? How do you tell it? How do chicks 
become infected, and what is the best thing to do to stop it? 

116. Mr. Osborne went to a friend's poultry yard where the hens were 
dying of fowl cholera and handled the birds, besides walking around in 
the yard. Was there danger of his carrying the disease to his flock? 

117. How can you thoroughly disinfect a poultry house and yard? 

118. How can you raise turkeys so that they will not have blackhead? 

CHAPTER XXI 

119. A flock of birds have pale faces and combs; some have been 
found dead under the perch poles in the morning; the birds' feathers 
are ruffled, and a fuzzy white material is noticed in the cracks of the 
perch poles : what do you suspect to be wrong and what further investiga- 
tion is necessary? 

120. How do you examine a bird for lousiness? How do you treat 
lousy birds? 

121. Where do lice multiply? mites? 

122. A hen has thick scales on her legs and presents an unsightly ap- 
pearance : what is likely to be the trouble and how do you cure it? 

123. A chicken has a few small black objects sticking to the un- 
feathered part of the head and neck : what are the parasites and what 
is the treatment? 

CHAPTER XXII 

124. In dressing a chicken, a round worm about two inches long and 
white in color is found in the intestine: what is this worm and is the 
meat of the chicken fit for food? 



The Essentials of Poultry Raising 133 

125. How do worms multiply? How do birds become infested with 
them? How do you get rid of worms? 

126. What is the structure of a tapeworm, and does a tapeworm eat? 

127. How do birds become infested by tapeworms? 

Final Examination 

128. Write an article for a farm paper on the opportunities in the 
poultry industry in your county. 

129. What are the advantages of increasing poultry on our farms 
from the standpoint of farm management, including the relation of 
investment to profit, utilization, and distribution of labor, etc.? 

130. Compare the man labor required to care for a hundred hens for 
a year to that for one cow for the same period, including profit, invest- 
ment, labor, etc. 

131. What price may be secured for fowls marketed as eggs, broilers, 
young breeding stock? (Ref. N. J. Bui. 329.) 

132. Make a survey of several farms in your community and report 
in full on the poultry. 



INDEX 



Abdomen, of laying hen, 36. 

of non-laying hen, 36. 
Age, of breeders, 30. 

for mating, 30. 
Air cell of egg, 30. 
Artificial brooding, 89. 

brooders for, 92. 

construction of brooders for, 92. 

and incubating, 89. 

Barley, 66. 

Beak, bleaching of in laying hens, 34. 
Bin, grain storage, 49. 
Blackhead of turkeys, 108. 
How to tell, 108. 
treatment of, 109. 
Bleaching of shanks and beak due to 

laying, 32. 
Body changes due to laying, 35. 
Bracing posts, 56. 
Breeders, age of, 30. 

selecting hens for, 29. 

males for, 28. 

ducks for, 71. 

geese for, 32. 

turkeys for, 31. 
Breeding birds, 69. 
Breed, 17, 18. 
Brooding, natural, 82. 
Buckwheat, 66. 

Carbon dioxide of body, 38. 

how got rid of, 38. 
Candler, use of, 79. 
Candling eggs, 78. 
Cannibalism, 98. 
Capacity of perch poles, 44. 
Cement posts, 54, 55. 
Chicks, vigor of, 85. 

when to hatch, 86. 
Chicks on range, 98. 
Chilling, effects of, 98. 
Cholera, fowl, 107. 

how to tell, 107. 

treatment of, 107. 
Class, 107. 

Classification of poultry, 107. 
Combination sitting and brooding coop, 

102. 
Common fowls, 20. 
Com, 65. 

cracked, 66. 

meal, 66. * 
Construction, of artificial brooders, 92. 

of cold brooders, 92. 

of coops, 83. 

of combination sitting and brooding 
coop, 83. 



droppings box, 52. 

mash hopper, indoor, 48, 49. 

nests, 50, 51. 

poultry house, 42. 

outdoor mash hopper, 101. 

sitting and brooding coop, 83. 
Cotton seed meal, 66. 
Cross breeding, results of, 32. 
Culling hens. 34, 
Culls of flock, 37. 

Deflector hover, 92. 
Diarrhea, 106. 

how contracted, 106. 

kinds of, 106. 

treatment of, 106. 
Digestive tract, 62. 
Diphtheria, 61. 
Droppings box, 52. 

scrape, 53. 
Ducks, 21. 

Eggs, blood ring, 75. 
candling, 75. 
car lots, 11. 
cases, 77. 

fillers, 79. 

flats, 79. 
cold storage, 10. 
cracks in, 79. 
fresh, 80. 
grading, 76. 

grading according to color, 76. 
hatch spots, 80. 
hatching, how to ship, 78, 85. 
hauling to market, 78. 
how marketed, 10, 77, 103. 
length of time required to hatch, 85. 
losses on farm, 75. 
marketing in clubs, 81. 
points in grading, 77. 
preservation, 103. 

kinds of containers, 103. 

water glass, 103. 
production, 27. 

males not necessary to, 33. 

molting, as an indication of, 36. 

upward tendency in, 35. 

size of air cell of, 188. 
production records, 13. 
Exercise, value of, 72. 
Extension runs, 103. 

Farm poultry, 31. 
Fats, 63. 

Fattening establishments, 10. 
for market, 10. 



Index 



135 



Fattening poultry, 102. 

length of time required for, 102. 

feeds for, 102. 
Feeds, 65. 

barley, 66. 

blood meal, 67. 

buckwheat, 66. 

corn, 65. 

cottonseed meal, 66. 

fish scrap, 67. 

grazing crops, 68. 

green feed, 67. 

when to plant, 69. 

grit and shell, 97. 

meat scrap, 67. 

milk, 67. 

oats, 66. 

peanut meal, 67. 

rice, 66. 

rye, 66. 

soybean meal, 67. 

spoiled feed, 67. 

velvet bean meal, 67, 

water, 98. 

wasting, 99. 

weights, 74. 

wheat, 61. 

boards, required for, 96. 
Feeding, chicks, 96, 97. 

chickens, 73. 

ducks, 96. 

geese, 100. 

goslings, 100. 

poults, 100. 

regularity of, 71. 

turkeys, 99. 
Fencing and yarding, 54. 

farm poultry, 56. 

on town lot, 56. 

posts, 54, 55. 

standard height, 56. 

wire, 54, 55. 
Fleas, 112. 

how they multiply, 112. 

stick tight, 112. 

treatment for, 112. 
Floor space, 46. 
Fowls, cholera, 107. 

common, 20. 

origin of, 9. 

kinds of, 9. 

structure of, 14. 
Galus Bankiva, 9. 
Geese, 21. 
Grading eggs, 76. 
Grain mixtures, 73. 
Grain storage bin, 48. 
Grazing crop, 67. 
Green feed, 67. 
Grit for chicks, 97. 

Hatching eggs, 85. 

Hens to discard, 35. 

Hopper, mash, 48. 

House, construction of, 42, 145. 

equipment of, 44, 48. 

floor space of, 44. 

for hover, 92, 93. 



nests in, 44. 
plans of, 46, 47. 
remodeling of, 42. 
ventilation of, 38, 40. 
Hovers, construction of, 95. 
deflector, 92. 
house, 92. 

Incubation, artificial, 89. 

body of incubator for, 89. 

candling eggs in, 92. 

care of eggs in, 91. 

construction of incubator for, 89. 

heat necessary in, 91. 

kinds of, 89. 

leveling in, 91. 

methods of heating in, 89. 

natural, 82. 

oil-burning, 90. 

parts of incubator for, 89. 

small incubator for, 89. 
Indications of vigor, 29. 

Kinds of fowls, 9. 
incubators for, 89. 

Laying hens, how to select, 34. 

abdomen of, 36. 

abdomen, condition of, 32, 36. 

beak of, 35. 

body of, 35. 

condition of, 32. 

measurements of, 35. 

sex characters of, 36. 

shanks of, 35. 

vent of, 35. 
Lice, 108. 

effect on birds of, 10. 

how to find on birds, 110. 

how they multiply, 110. 

treatment for, 110. 

Market, fattening poultry for, 10. 
Marketing, eggs, 103. 

in clubs, 81. 

surplus eggs, 10. 
Market grades of fowls, 103. 
Mating, age for, 30. 

number of females to male in, 32. 

time to save eggs for, 31. 
Mash hopper, 48, 101. 
Mash, 71. 

dry, 72. 

formulae for, 72. 

hot, 72. 

mixtures in, 73. 

reasons for feeding, 73. 
Meat fowl, 27. 

qualities in a, 27. 
Meat scrap, 67. 

Measurements of laying hens, 35. 
Milk, 67. 

Milk fattening poultry, 102. 
Mites, 110. 

effects on birds of, 110. 

how they multiply, 110. 

treatment for, 110. 

where found, 110. 



13^ 



Molting, indications of in egg produc- 
tion, 38. 
vacational, 36. 

Natural brooding, 82. 

incubating, 82. 
Nests, construction of, 50. 

sizes of, 44. 
Nutrients, 65. 

carbohydrates, 65. 

hydrocarbons, 65. 

kinds of, 65. 

protein in, 65. 

required, 72. 

Organs, of digestion, 62. 

of breathing, 64. 

of respiration, 64. 
Origin of fowls, 9. 
Ornamental fowls, 38. 
Oxygen of air, 38. 

how needed, 38. 

how taken up, 38. 
Overcrowding, effects of, 98. 
Overheating, 98. 

Perch poles, 44. 

Physical condition of laying hens, 34. 

Physical defects of laying hens, 34. 

Peanut meal, 67. 

Posts, bracing of, 56. 

cement, 55. 

durable, 54. 

not durable, 54. 

reinforced concrete, 55. 

setting of, 56. 

steel, 54. 

wood, 54. 
Poultry house construction, 42. 

remodeling, 42. 

ventilation, 36, 40. 
Poultry, breeding of on farm, 31. 

classification, 17. 

fattening of, 10. 

in other countries, 13. 

in America, 9. 

magnitude of industry, — . 

national organization for breeding, 17. 

purpose for which kept, 9. 

standard, 17. 
Production, capon, 11. 

duck, 11. 

egg, 11. 

meat, 27. 

turkey, 11. 
Pullet, indication of laying qualities 

in, 36. 
Qualities of hens, 35, 36. 

laying hens, 36. 

meat fowls, 27. 
Range chicks, 98. 
Results of cross breeding, 32. 
Rice, 68. 
Roup, 58. 

cause of, 58. 

how to prevent, 60. 

spread of, 58. 

how to tell, 58. 

treatment of, 59. 



Scrape, droppings, 59. 
Scaly legs, 112. 

appearance of, 112. 

treatment of, 112. 
Selection of males for breeding, 27. 

eggs for hatching, 85. 

for vigor, 29. 

hens for breeding, 29. 

laying hens, 34. 
Set a hen, how to, 84. 
Sex characters of laying hens, 36. 
Sex of ducks, how distinguished, 30. 
Shipping poultry, 103. 
Shanks, bleaching of due to laying, 34. 
Sitting and brooding coop, 82. 
Sitting hens, 86. 
Sore head, 61. 

how to tell, 61. 

treatment of, 61. 
Soybean meal, 67. 
Spoiled feeds, 67. 
Shipping eggs, 77. 

of dressed poultry, 10. 
Stale eggs, 11. 
Starch, 65. 
Steel posts, 54. 
Structure of fowl, 14. 
Sugars, 65. 
Swollen eye, 58. 

treatment of, 58. 

Turkeys, 21. 

Utility fowls, 27. 

Upward tendency of egg production, 35. 

Vacational molt, 36. 

Variety, 17, 19. 

Velvet bean meal, 67. 

Vent, condition of in laying hens, 33. 

in non-laying hens, 35. 
Ventilation, by diffusion, 38. 

by drafts, 40. 

required in poultry houses, 38. 
Vigor, lack of, 31. 

of chicks, 86. 

selection for, 29, 30. 

good constitutional, 31. 
Volume of feeds, 74. 

Water glass, 103. 
supply of, 71. 
Wheat, 66. 
Wire fencing, 55. 
Worms, 113. 

gapeworms, 113. 

how spread, 113. 
effect on birds, 113. 
treatment, 113. 
tapeworms, 113. 
structure, 114. 
size of, 114. 
treatment of, 114. 
large round, 115. 

condition produced by, 115. 
treatment for, 115. 
small round, 115. 



